The extent of thermally altered rocks in high temperature geothermal reservoirs hosted by young volcanic rocks can be assessed from magnetic surveys. Magnetic anomalies associated with many geothermal field in New Zealand and Indonesia can be interpreted in terms of thick (up to 1 km) demagnetized reservoir rocks. Demagnetization of these rocks has been confirmed by core studies and is caused by hydrothermal alteration produced from fluid/rock interactions. Models of the demagnetized Wairakei (NZ) and Kamojang (Indonesia) reservoirs are presented which include the productive areas. Magnetic surveys give fast and economical investigations of high temperature prospects if measurements are made from the air. The magnetic interpretation models can provide important constraints for reservoir models. Magnetic ground surveys can also be used to assess the extent of concealed near surface alteration which can be used in site selection of engineering structures.

The Cascade Range is a geothermal dichotomy. On the one hand, it is an active volcanic arc above a subducting plate and is demonstrably an area of high heat flow. On the other hand, the distribution of hydrothermal manifestations compared to other volcanic arcs is sparse, and the hydrothermal outflow calculated from stream chemistry is low. Several large estimates of undiscovered geothermal resources in the U.S. part of the Cascade Range prepared in the 1970s and early 1980s were based fundamentally on two models of the upper crust. One model assumed that large, partly molten, intrusive bodies exist in the upper 10 km beneath major volcanic centers and serve as the thermal engines driving overlying hydrothermal systems. The other model interpreted the coincident heat-flow and gravity gradients west of the Cascade crest in central Oregon to indicate a partly molten heat source at 10 {+-} 2 km depth extending {approx}30 km west from the axis of the range. Investigations of the past ten years have called both models into question. Large long-lived high-temperature hydrothermal systems at depths <3 km in the U.S. part of the Cascade Range appear to be restricted to silicic domefields at the Lassen volcanic center, Medicine …

The author calculated the neutralization of circulating beam in this report. In the calculation it is assumed that all electrons liberated from the background molecules due to the collisional processes are trapped in the potential well of the proton beam. Including the dependence of ionization cross sections on the kinetic energy of the incident particle, the author derived the empirical formula for beam neutralization as a function of time and baseline vacuum pressure, which is applicable to the one acceleration cycle of the IPNS-Upgrade RCS.

The Steamboat Hills Geothermal Field in northwestern Nevada, about 15 km south of Reno, is a shallow (150m to 825m) moderate temperature (155 C to 168 C) liquid-dominated geothermal reservoir situated in highly-fractured granodiorite. Three injection wells were drilled and completed in granodiorite to dispose of spent geothermal fluids from the Steamboat II and III power plants (a 30 MW air-cooled binary-type facility). Injection wells were targeted to depths below 300m to inject spent fluids below producing fractures. First, quasi-static downhole pressure-temperature-spinner (PTS) logs were obtained. Then, the three wells were injection-tested using fluids between 80 C and 106 C at rates from 70 kg/s to 200 kg/s. PTS logs were run both up and down the wells during these injection tests. These PTS surveys have delineated the subsurface fracture zones which will accept fluid. The relative injectivity of the wells was also established. Shut-in interzonal flow within the wells was identified and characterized.

A simple model is proposed for water/rock interaction in rock fractures through which geothermal water flows. Water/rock interaction experiments were carried out at high temperature and pressure (200-350 C, 18 MPa) in order to obtain basic solubility and reaction rate data. Based on the experimental data, changes of idealized fracture apertures with time are calculated numerically. The results of the calculations show that the precipitation from water can lead to plugging of the fractures under certain conditions. Finally, the results are compared with the experimental data.

A simple model is proposed for water/rock interaction in rock fractures through which geothermal water flows. Water/rock interaction experiments were carried out at high temperature and pressure (200-350 C, 18 MPa) in order to obtain basic solubility and reaction rate data. Based on the experimental data, changes of idealized fracture apertures with time are calculated numerically. The results of the calculations show that the precipitation from water can lead to plugging of the fractures under certain conditions. Finally, the results are compared with the experimental data.

A three-element Koehler condenser system has been fabricated, characterized, and integrated into an EUV lithographic system. The multilayer coatings deposited on the optics were designed to provide optimal radiation transport efficiency and illumination uniformity. Extensive EUV characterization measurements performed on the individual optics and follow-on system measurements indicated that the condenser was operating close to design goals. Multilayer d-spacings were within 0.05 nm of specifications, and reflectances were approximately 60%. Illumination uniformity was better than {plus_minus}10%. The broadband transport efficiency was 11%.

A simulation model capable of handling the effects of sorption was constructed. It accounts for the curved interface thermodynamics associated with adsorption and desorption. Data from several laboratory experiments were used to verify the model. The results indicated that simulation runs using sorption isotherms adequately model the pressure transient behavior observed in the laboratory experiments. Dry steam models severely underestimated the effective compressibility. Models using flat-interface (steam table) thermodynamics over-estimated the compressibility of the system, indicated by slower than actual rate of pressure transient propagation.

This paper describes the method to estimate the true formation temperature using temperature recovery logging data after the well reach to total depth (T.D.). The method designated as ''Curve-fitting method (CFM)'' is based on mathematical model proposed by Middleton (1979, 1982). The accuracy and applicability of this method are evaluated with several field data and compared advantageously with the Horner-plot method. Then, real-time data acquisition system including interpretation software has also been successfully developed. As a conclusion, the followings are confirmed: (1) The developed CFM can be applicable to the estimation of the true formation temperature even using 24 hours temperature recovery data, although the Horner-plot method might need up to 120 hours recovery data, usually. (2) Though depending upon the quality of the data and/or number of the temperature recovery logging data, it might be possible to estimate the true formation temperature using less than 24 hours recovery data. Because, the computer program of this system has the function to decide when the measurement of temperature recovery logging should be finished.

The adsorption of liquid water in a vapor-dominated geothermal reservoir is one way the rocks hold fluids. The presence of this adsorbed water must be taken into account in the evaluation of the reservoir capacity. A great number of papers have been published in the last ten years on this matter (see for instance [Hornbrook, 1994], and [Economides, 1985]); at Stanford University a big effort was carried out in experimental measurements of the adsorption/desorption from reservoir samples (see [Shang, 1994]). In Italy we have a new geothermal field not exploited yet, in the Monteverdi region (southern border of Larderello), where 16 productive wells were found, supplying two 20 MW geothermal units. All the wells produce superheated steam. The effect of adsorbed water was simulated, and the results will be presented in WGC 95 [Bertani, 1995].

We report results of steam adsorption experiments conducted for rock samples from vapor-dominated geothermal reservoirs. We examine the effect of the temperature on the adsorption/desorption isotherms. We find that the temperature effect is only important on the desorption such that the hysteresis becomes more pronounced as the temperature increases. The scanning behavior within the steam sorption hysteresis loop is also studied to investigate the behavior during repressurization. Collection of sets of data on the sorption behavior of The Geysers geothermal field in California is presented.

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A set of models of HDR systems is presented which attempts to explain the formation and operation of HDR systems using only the in-situ properties of the fractured rock mass, the earth stress field, the engineering intervention applied by way of stimulation and the relative positions and pressures of the well(s). A statistical and rock mechanics description of fractures in low permeability rocks provides the basis for modeling of stimulation, circulation and water loss in HDR systems. The model uses a large number of parameters, chiefly simple directly measurable quantities, describing the rock mass and fracture system. The effect of stimulation (raised fluid pressure allowing slip) on fracture apertures is calculated, and the volume of rock affected per volume of fluid pumped estimated. The total rock volume affected by stimulation is equated with the rock volume containing the associated AE (microseismicity). The aperture and compliance properties of the stimulated fractures are used to estimate impedance and flow within the reservoir. Fluid loss from the boundary of the stimulated volume is treated using radial leak-off with pressure-dependent permeability.

This test report documents the results that were obtained while conducting the test procedure which bypassed the heat exchangers in the HC-21C sludge stabilization process. The test was performed on November 15, 1994 using WHC-SD-CP-TC-031, ``Heat Exchanger Bypass Test Procedure.`` The primary objective of the test procedure was to determine if the heat exchangers were contributing to condensation of moisture in the off-gas line. This condensation was observed in the rotameters. Also, a secondary objective was to determine if temperatures at the rotameters would be too high and damage them or make them inaccurate without the heat exchangers in place.

The Department of Energy (DOE)/geothermal industry-sponsored Geysers Coring Project (GCP) has yielded 236.8 m of continuous core apparently spanning the transition between the uppermost Geysers steam reservoir and its caprock. Both zones in the corehole are developed in superficially similar, fractured, complexly veined and locally sericitized, Franciscan (late Mesozoic) graywacke-argillite sequences. However, whereas the reservoir rocks host two major fluid conduits (potential steam entries), the caprock is only sparingly permeable. This discrepancy appears to reflect principally vein texture and mineralogy. Two types of veins are common in the core--randomly-oriented, Franciscan metamorphic quartz-calcite veins; and high-angle, late Cenozoic veins deposited by The Geysers hydrothermal system. The older veins locally contain hydrothermal carbonate-dissolution vugs, which, although concentrated at the larger fluid conduit, are scattered throughout the core. The younger veins, commonly with intercrystalline vugs, consist dominantly of euhedral quartz, calcite, K-feldspar, wairakite, and pyrite--those in the reservoir rock also contain minor epidote and illite. The corresponding caprock veins are devoid of epidote but contain abundant, late-stage, mixed-layer illite/smecite (5-18% smectite interlayers) with minor chlorite/smectite (40-45% smectite interlayers). We suggest that clots of these two expandable clays in the caprock clog otherwise permeable veins and carbonate-dissolution networks at strategic sites to produce or …

Hydrothermal systems typically consist of hot permeable rock which contains either liquid or liquid and saturated steam within the voids. These systems vent fluids at the surface through hot springs, fumaroles, mud pools, steaming ground and geysers. They are simultaneously recharged as meteoric water percolates through the surrounding rock or through the active injection of water at various geothermal reservoirs. In a number of geothermal reservoirs from which significant amounts of hot fluid have been extracted and passed through turbines, superheated regions of vapor have developed. As liquid migrates through a superheated region of a hydrothermal system, some of the liquid vaporizes at a migrating liquid-vapor interface. Using simple physical arguments, and analogue laboratory experiments we show that, under the influence of gravity, the liquid-vapor interface may become unstable and break up into fingers.

Pre- and post-fracturing well tests in TG-2 well drilled next to the Matsukawa field are interpreted for evaluating effects of a massive hydraulic fracturing treatment. The interpreted data include multiple-step rate tests, a two-step rate test, and falloff tests. Pressure behaviors of massive hydraulic fracturing are matched by a simulator of dynamic fracture option. Fracture parting pressures can be evaluated from the multiple-step rate test data. The multiple-step rates during the massive hydraulic fracturing treatment show that multiple fractures have been induced in sequence. Although the pre-fracturing falloff tests are too short, fracture propagation can be evaluated qualitatively from the falloff data. Interpretation of the falloff test immediately after the MHF suggests that extensive fractures have been created by the MHF, which is verified by simulation. The post-fracturing falloff tests show that the fractures created by the MHF have closed to a great degree.

A suite of laboratory measurements have been conducted on Geysers metagraywacke and metashale recovered from a drilled depth of 2599 to 2602 meters in NEGU-17. The tests have been designed to constrain the mechanical and water-storage properties of the matrix material. Various measurements have been made at a variety of pressures and at varying degrees of saturation. Both compressional and shear velocities exhibit relatively little change with effective confining pressure. In all of the samples, water saturation causes an increase in the compressional velocity. In some samples, saturation results in a moderate decrease in shear velocity greater in magnitude than would be expected based on the slight increase in bulk density. It is found that the effect of saturation on the velocities can be quantitatively modeled through a modification of Biot-Gassmann theory to include weakening of the shear modulus with saturation. The decrease is attributed to chemo-mechanical weakening caused by the presence of water. The degree of frame weakening of the shear modulus is variable between samples, and appears correlated with petrographic features of the cores. Two related models are presented through which we can study the importance of saturation effects on field-scale velocity variations. The model results indicate that …

Active fault systems usually provide high-permeability channels for hydrothermal outflow in geothermal fields. Locating such fault systems is of a vital importance to plan geothermal production and injection drilling, since an active fault zone often acts as a fracture-extensive low-velocity wave guide to seismic waves. We have located an active fault zone in the Coso geothermal field, California, by identifying and analyzing a fault-zone trapped Rayleigh-type guided wave from microearthquake data. The wavelet transform is employed to characterize guided-wave's velocity-frequency dispersion, and numerical methods are used to simulate the guided-wave propagation. The modeling calculation suggests that the fault zone is {approx} 200m wide, and has a P wave velocity of 4.80 km/s and a S wave velocity of 3.00 km/s, which is sandwiched between two half spaces with relatively higher velocities (P wave velocity 5.60 km/s, and S wave velocity 3.20 km/s). zones having vertical or nearly vertical dipping fault planes.

Microearthquake activity at the Southeast Geysers, California, geothermal field is monitored with a high-resolution digital seismic network. Hypocenters are spatially clustered in both injection and production areas, but also occur in more diffuse patterns, mostly at depths from 1 to 2.8 km. Hypocenters near the injection well DV-11 exhibit a striking correlation with movement of injectate and injectate-derived steam. Preliminary moment tensor results show promise to provide information on the differing source mechanisms resulting from fluid injection and steam extraction.

During the mid-l980's, Comision Federal de Electricidad (CFE) drilled a number of deep wells (M-200 series) at the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, Baja California, Mexico to investigate the continuation of the geothermal reservoir to the east of the Cerro Prieto-II and III production areas. The wells encountered permeability at depths ranging from 2,800 to 4,400 m but due to the reservoir depth and the relatively cold temperatures encountered in the upper 1,000 to 2,000 m of the wells, it was not possible to discharge some of the wells. The wells at Cerro Prieto are generally discharged by injecting compressed air below the water level using 2-3/8-inch tubing installed with either a crane or workover rig. The objective of this technique is to lift sufficient water out of the well to stimulate flow from the reservoir into the wellbore. However, in the case of the M-200 series wells, the temperatures in the upper 1,000 to 2,000 m are generally below 50 C and the heat loss to the formation is therefore significant. The impact of heat loss on the stimulation process was evaluated using both a numerical model of the reservoir/wellbore system and steady-state wellbore modeling. The results from the study …

Numerical simulations were carried out to characterize the behaviors of fractured reservoirs under production which causes in-situ boiling. A radial flow model with a single production well, and a two-dimensional geothermal reservoir model with several production and injection wells were used to study the two-phase reservoir behavior. The behavior can be characterized mainly by the parameters such as the fracture spacing and matrix permeability. However, heterogeneous distribution of the steam saturation in the fracture and matrix regions brings about another complicated feature to problems of fractured two-phase reservoirs.

Using a pore network model to represent porous media we investigate adsorption-desorption processes over the entire range of the relative pressure, highlighting in particular capillary condensation. The model incorporates recent advances from density functional theory for adsorption-desorption in narrow pores (of order as low as 1 nm), which improve upon the traditional multi-layer adsorption and Kelvin's equation for phase change and provide for the dependence of the critical pore size on temperature. The limited accessibility of the pore network gives rise to hysteresis in the adsorption-desorption cycle. This is due to the blocking of larger pores, where adsorbed liquid is allowed to but cannot desorb, by smaller pores containing liquid that may not desorb. By allowing for the existence of supercritical liquid in pores in the nm range, it is found that the hysteresis area increases with an increase in temperature, in agreement with experiments of water adsorption-desorption in rock samples from The Geysers. It is also found that the hysteresis increases if the porous medium is represented as a fractured (dual porosity) system. The paper finds applications to general adsorption-desorption problems but it is illustrated here for geothermal applications in The Geysers.

The feasibility of using small geothermal generators (< 1 MWe) for off-grid electrical power in remote areas or for rural electrification in developing nations would be enhanced if drilling costs could be reduced. This paper examines the electrical generating capacity of fluids which can be produced from typical slim holes (six-inch diameter or less), both by binary techniques (with downhole pumps) and, for hotter reservoir fluids, by conventional spontaneous-discharge flash-steam methods. Depending mainly on reservoir temperature, electrical capacities from a few hundred kilowatts to over one megawatt per slim hole appear to be possible.