This report outlines the basic radiological and chemical characteristics of cobalt-60 ({sup 60}Co) and examines how these characteristics affect the behavior of {sup 60}Co in various environmental media, such as soils, groundwater, plants, animals, the atmosphere, and the human body. Discussions also include methods of {sup 60}Co production, waste types, and waste forms that contain {sup 60}Co. All cobalt atoms contain 27 protons (Z = 27) and various numbers of neutrons (typically N = 27 to 37 neutrons) within the atom`s nucleus. There is only one stable isotope of cobalt, namely {sup 59}Co. All other cobalt isotopes, including {sup 60}Co, are radioactive. The radioactive isotopes of cobalt have half-lives ranging from less than a second ({sup 54}Co-0.19 s) to 5.2 years ({sup 60}Co). The radioactive isotopes of cobalt are not a normal constituent of the natural environment and are generated as a result of human activities. The primary source of {sup 60}Co in the environment has been low-level radioactive waste material generated as a result of neutron activation of stable {sup 59}Co that is present in the structural components of nuclear reactor vessels. This isotope is also intentionally produced, usually in reactors but also to some degree in accelerators for …

Absorption chillers are heat-operate refrigeration without harmful environmental emissions (CFCs, HCFCS, and HFCS). The machine uses either steam or a gas-fired burner as the energy source and utilizes endothermic evaporation to provide refrigeration to an external process fluid, usually chilled water. In the United States, absorption chillers are used in regions where the cost of electricity is high relative to natural gas. Absorption chillers are also used in applications where steam is readily available or in areas where seasonal load peaks cause utilities to subsidize gas cooling. This paper will describe the history of absorption, the basic absorption refrigeration cycle and some advanced high efficiency cycles. Practical applications of absorption refrigeration to commercial end uses will also be discussed.

The authors discuss tolerances and correction schemes needed to control single- and multi-bunch emittance in the NLC main linacs. Specifications and design of emittance diagnostic stations will be presented. Trajectory correction schemes appropriate to simultaneously controlling the emittance of a multibunch train and the emittance of individual bunches within the train will be discussed. The authors discuss control of bunch-to-bunch energy spread using a ramped RF pulse generated by phase-modulating the SLED-II input. Tolerances on ions, wake fields, quadrupole alignment, and accelerating structure alignment will be given.

The modern mining enterprises have attained such scales of engineering activity that their direct influence to a rock massif and in series of cases to the region seismic regime doesn`t provoke any doubts. Excavation and removal of large volumes of rock mass, industrial explosions and other technological factors during long time can lead to the accumulation of man-made changes in rock massifs capable to cause catastrophic consequences. The stress state changes in considerable domains of massif create dangerous concentration of stresses at large geological heterogeneities - faults localized in the mining works zone. External influence can lead in that case to such phenomena as tectonic rockbursts and man-made earthquakes. The rockbursts problem in world mining practice exists for more than two hundred years. So that its actuality not only doesn`t decrease but steadily mounts up as due to the mining works depth increase, enlargement of the useful minerals excavations volumes as due to the possibility of safe use of the rock massif potential energy for facilitating the mastering of the bowels of the Earth and for making that more cheap. The purpose of present work is to study the engineering activity influence to processes occurring in the upper part of …

We discuss the main parameters of the electric field in the surface layer of the atmosphere and the results of the investigations of the natural electric field variations. Experimental investigations of the electromagnetic field for explosions in air are presented. Electromagnetic signals generated by underground nuclear and chemical explosions are discussed and explosions for 1976--1991 are listed. Long term anomalies of the earth`s electromagnetic field in the vicinity of underground explosions were also investigated. Study of the phenomenon of the irreversible shock magnetization showed that in the zone nearest to the explosion the quasistatic magnetic field decreases in inverse proportion to the distance.

Newsletter distributed to the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Forum members describing current news, policies, and legislation, as well as other information relevant to the management of low-level radioactive waste.

Over the past 30 years, U.S. trade negotiators have pressured Japan to open its market to foreign goods and services. These outside pressures, known as gaiatsu in Japan, have been based partly on economically coercive bargaining and partly on invitation. The coercive element, which has entailed threats of retaliatory market constriction should a satisfactory resolution of the market opening dispute not be forthcoming, generally has been a necessary ingredient in obtaining concessions from Japan. The invitational component, which has included requests for U.S. pressures from Japanese interests who favor reforms, generally has facilitated Japanese concessions and made the gaiatsu process unique.

In the second half of the 1990`s, LLNL and others will be designing and beginning construction of the National Ignition Facility (NIF). At more than 10 times the power and size of the Nova laser system, this new laser will be capable of producing the worlds first controlled fusion ignition and burn, completing a vital milestone on the path to Fusion Energy. In order to optimize the performance of the laser system for a minimum cost, the designers have been conducting a campaign to properly specify the optical properties of the more than 7,500 large optical components to be deployed in the NIF. The draft optics specifications derived from this effort will be presented. The evolution of these specifications, both in language and in content, will be discussed, specifically transmitted wavefront (both P-V and PSD), scratch/dig, surface roughness, bubbles and inclusions specifications.

In preparation for beginning the design of the Nation Ignition Facility (NIF) in the United States and the Laser Mega-Joule (LMJ) in France, the authors are in the process of deriving new specifications for the large optics required for these facilities. Traditionally, specifications for transmitted wavefront and surface roughness of large ICF optics have been based on parameters which were easily measured during the early 1980`s, such as peak-to-valley wavefront error (PV) and root-mean-square (RMS) surface roughness, as well as wavefront gradients in terms of waves per cm. While this was convenient from a fabrication perspective, since the specifications could be easily interpreted by fabricators in terms which were understood and conventionally measurable, it did not accurately reflect the requirements of the laser system. For the NIF and LMJ laser systems, the authors use advances in metrology and interferometry and an enhanced understanding of laser system performance to derive specifications which are based on power spectral densities (PSD`s.) Such requirements can more accurately reflect the requirements of the laser system for minimizing the amplitude of mid- and high-spatial frequency surface and transmitted wavefront errors, while not over constraining the fabrication in terms of low spatial frequencies, such as residual coma …

This sampling analysis sets forth the effluent sampling requirements, analytical methods, statistical analyses, and reporting requirements to satisfy the State Waste Discharge Permit No. ST4502 for the Treated Effluent Disposal Facility. These requirements are listed below: Determine the variability in the effluent of all constituents for which enforcement limits, early warning values and monitoring requirements; demonstrate compliance with the permit; and verify that BAT/AKART (Best Available Technology/All know and Reasonable Treatment) source, treatment, and technology controls are being met.

The DANTSYS code package includes the following transport codes: ONEDANT, TWODANT, TWODANT/GQ, TWOHEX, and THREEDANT. The DANTSYS code package is a modular computer program package designed to solve the time-independent, multigroup discrete ordinates form of the boltzmann transport equation in several different geometries. The modular construction of the package separates the input processing, the transport equation solving, and the post processing (or edit) functions into distinct code modules: the Input Module, one or more Solver Modules, and the Edit Module, respectively. The Input and Edit Modules are very general in nature and are common to all the Solver Modules. The ONEDANT Solver Module contains a one-dimensional (slab, cylinder, and sphere), time-independent transport equation solver using the standard diamond-differencing method for space/angle discretization. Also included in the package are solver Modules named TWODANT, TWODANT/GQ, THREEDANT, and TWOHEX. The TWODANT Solver Module solves the time-independent two-dimensional transport equation using the diamond-differencing method for space/angle discretization. The authors have also introduced an adaptive weighted diamond differencing (AWDD) method for the spatial and angular discretization into TWODANT as an option. The TWOHEX Solver Module solves the time-independent two-dimensional transport equation on an equilateral triangle spatial mesh. The THREEDANT Solver Module solves the time independent, …

The scope of this document is to establish design guidelines for electronic circuitry packaged as multichip modules of the ceramic substrate variety, although many of these guidelines are applicable to other types of multichip modules. The guidelines begin with prerequisite information which must be developed between customer and designer of the multichip module. The core of the guidelines focuses on the many considerations that must be addressed during the multichip module design. The guidelines conclude with the resulting deliverables from the design which satisfy customer requirements and/or support the multichip module fabrication and testing processes. Considerable supporting information, checklists, and design constraints are captured in specific appendices and used as reference information in the main body text. Finally some real examples of multichip module design are presented.

In this work, three different ab initio methods are used to predict bond dissociation enthalpies (BDE) and atomization energies for TiCl{sub n} (n = 1-4) and Ti(NH{sub 2})n (n = 1-4) compounds, as well as for the complex TiCl{sub 4}:NH{sub 3}. There is considerable variation in the predicted BDES, even for highly electron-correlated methods. However, bond-additivity corrections applied to coupled-cluster calculations at the CCSD(T) level, expected to be the most reliable of the three methods, yield Ti-Cl BDEs in good agreement with experimental results. An experimental estimate of the TiCl{sub 4} BDE is also reported that is consistent with the ab initio results and recent experiments by others indicating that the TiCl{sub 3} heat of formation reported in the JANAF Tables is too low. Finally, the predicted BDEs indicate that the gas-phase reaction of TiCl{sub 4} and NH{sub 3} to form the complex Cl{sub 4}Ti:NH{sub 3} is exothermic by 17 kcal mol{sub {minus}1}. In addition, decomposition of the complex to form Cl{sub 3}TiNH{sub 2} and HCl is endothermic by 20 kcal mol{sup {minus}1}.

This regional study of gas reservoirs in the Appalachian basin has four main objectives: to organize all of the -as reservoirs in the Appalachian basin into unique plays based on common age, lithology, trap type and other geologic similarities; to write, illustrate and publish an atlas of major gas plays; to prepare and submit a digital data base of geologic, engineering and reservoir parameters for each gas field; and technology transfer to the oil and gas industry during the preparation of the atlas and data base.

In this paper, an analytical model is developed to estimate the impact of reducing engine assembly mass (the term engine assembly refers to the moving components of the engine system, including crankshafts, valve train, pistons, and connecting rods) on engine friction and vehicle fuel economy. The relative changes in frictional mean effective pressure and fuel economy are proportional to the relative change in assembly mass. These changes increase rapidly as engine speed increases. Based on the model, a 25% reduction in engine assembly mass results in a 2% fuel economy improvement for a typical mid-size passenger car over the EPA Urban and Highway Driving Cycles.

By using the intense {sup 16}O ({sup 4}He,{sup 4}He) elastic scattering resonance at 7.3--7.6 MeV, we have been able to extend the earlier investigations of the channeling behaviour in YBa{sub 2}Cu{sub 3}O{sub 7-x} around T{sub c} to include the backscattered signal from the oxygen sublattice. We have also developed a computer code enabling us to simulate c-axis angular scans for each atomic sublattice as a function of depth. These simulations reproduce very well the observed oxygen angular scans at 70K (below T{sub c}) and at I00K (above T{sub c} with magnitudes of thermal vibrational amplitudes which are in reasonable agreement with neutron-scattering data. Concerning small changes at T{sub c }as observed in earlier channeling investigations, we have concentrated on the analysis of oxygen scans. A direct fit of the simulations to our measurements indicates an increase of about 0.5 pm in the amplitude of oxygen vibrations perpendicular to the c-axis, or a smaller increase combined with a static displacement above T{sub c}. Within estimated uncertainties, this result is consistent with neutron data. The oxygen O4) atoms on the CuO rows along the c-axis contribute a wider channeling dip than the other oxygen atoms (O1, O2 and O3), which form pure …

Purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that the major assumption underlying the ALCHEMI formulation is justified: that the degree of ionization localization of an elemental shell can be accounted for by a linear coefficient; and to introduce a potential method, which would be applicable to B2-ordered alloys, of independently extracting the ratio of coefficients L{sub jk} necessary for delocalization correction. A Cr-doped FeAl alloy and a series of Fe-doped NiAl alloys with 0.25-12 at. % Fe were analyzed. Excellent linearity of the data substantiates the use of linear coefficients to model ionization localization. It was investigated whether the L{sub jk} acquired at a (110) systematics orientation could be accurately applied to ALCHEMI data acquired at (200).

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Secondary characteristic fluorescence, when expressed relative to the primary intensity of the fluorescing element, can be written as the product of three factors, which represent the probabilities of the various processes that govern the magnitude of fluorescence and thus have values between zero and one. Two of these factors are characteristic of the material being analyzed. The factor C{sub X}{sup Y} is the likelihood that the primary x ray of Y is absorbed by the element X if it is absorbed in the fluoresced volume of the specimen. The factor P{sub X} is the probability that element X, having absorbed the primary x ray, emits the secondary x ray of interest. The third factor is the likelihood that the primary x ray is absorbed in the fluoresced volume, and is denoted {Omega}{sub eff}/4{pi}. For critical microanalysis studies, thin-flake specimens are most desirable, especially if the size of individual flakes is small relative to the scale, {approximately}10 {mu}m, over which the primary x rays are typically absorbed. However, a specimen comprised of small flakes may be impractical for many studies. Such a geometry may not indicate the relative positions and orientations of important microstructural features. The lack of sampling volume may …

ALCHEMI site-occupation studies of alloying additions to ordered aluminide intermetallic alloys have been performed with varying degrees of success, depending on the ionization delocalization correction. This study examines the variation in the site-occupancy of Fe in B2-ordered NiAl vs solute concentration and alloy stoichiometry. The fraction of Fe on the `Ni` site is plotted vs Fe concentration. The good separation among the data from alloys of the three stoichiometries shows that the site occupancy of iron depends on the relative concentrations of the Ni and Al host elements; however a preference for the `Ni` site is clearly indicated.

Ambers are well known and abundant in terrestrial sediments all over the world; however, due largely to the absence of definite morphological characteristics, the precise botanical origin of most amber samples, are at best, often a matter of speculation. This has severely restricted the usefulness of amber in paleobotanical and paleoecological interpretations. The molecular composition and structural characteristics of fossil resins however, may preserve evidence of their botanical origin, which could be of great value in both geochemical, paleobotanical, and paleoenvironmental studies. The remains of a number of exceptionally well-preserved Taxodiaceae-dominated swamp-forest communities have been identified in the sediments of the middle Eocene (45 million years old) Buchanan Lake Formation of Axel Heiberg Island, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The amber collected from these ancient in situ forests provides a unique opportunity to characterize these resins chemically and taxonomically. Resinite associated with Metasequoia, Pinus and Pseudolarix has been characterized using Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. This method provides a direct analysis of the molecular structure and composition of the resin. In several cases, both bled resin and cone-resin samples have been characterized. The results of these analyses are presented and discussed. The implications of these results for the botanical origins of other ambers represented …

A complex sequence of basalt flows and sedimentary interbeds underlies Test Area North (TAN) at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory in eastern Idaho. Wells drilled to depths of at least 500 feet penetrate 10 basalt-flow groups and 5 to 10 sedimentary interbeds that range in age from about 940,000 to 1.4 million years. Each basalt-flow group consists of one or more basalt flows from a brief, single or compound eruption. All basalt flows of each group erupted from the same vent, and have similar ages, paleomagnetic properties, potassium contents, and natural-gamma emissions. Sedimentary interbeds consist of fluvial, lacustrine, and eolian deposits of clay, silt, sand, and gravel that accumulated for hundreds to hundreds of thousands of years during periods of volcanic quiescence. Basalt and sediment are elevated by hundreds of feet with respect to rocks of equivalent age south and cast of the area, a relation that is attributed to past uplift at TAN. Basalt and sediment are unsaturated to a depth of about 200 feet below land surface. Rocks below this depth are saturated and make up the Snake River Plain aquifer. The effective base of the aquifer is at a depth of 885 feet below land surface. Detailed …

In addition to sulfate aerosols, carbonaceous and other non-sulfate aerosols are potentially significant contributors to global climate change. We present evidence that strongly suggests that current assessments of the effects of aerosols on climate may be inadequate because major aerosol components, especially carbonaceous aerosols, are not included in these assessments. Although data on the properties and distributions of anthropogenic carbonaceous aerosols are insufficient to allow quantification of their climate impacts, the existing information suggests that climate forcing by this aerosol component may be significant and comparable to that by sulfate aerosols. We propose that a research program be undertaken to support a quantitative assessment of the role in climate forcing of non-sulfate, particularly carbonaceous, aerosols.

Simplified models of EBR-II control and safety rods have been developed for core modeling under various operational and shutdown conditions. A parametric study was performed on normal worth, high worth, and safety rod type control rods. A summary of worth changes due to individual modeling approximations is tabulated. Worth effects due to structural modeling simplification are negligible. Fuel region homogenization and burnup compression contributes more than any other factor. Reference case C/E values (ratio of calculated worth from detailed model to measured worth) of 1.072 and 1.142 for safety and normal worth rods indicate acceptable errors when the approximations are used. Fuel burnup effect illustrates rod worth sensitivity to the modeling approximation. Aggregate effects are calculated under a reduced mesh.