An extensive study of the Thermal Shallow Reservoir at The Geysers was performed in 1982 to improve our understanding of the source and flow patterns of steam in the shallow anomaly and how they relate to the Thermal 4 blowout. This project included gathering and analyzing pressure transient, enthalpy, tracer and chemical data and developing a reservoir model that was consistent with this data. Following the pressure transient testing and analysis, a convection-plume with lateral-flow model was proposed. Subsequent analysis of enthalpy, tracer and chemical data corroborated this model. The high flowrate wells--Thermal 4, Thermal 10, Thermal 11 and Magma 1--produce from the high-pressure, high-permeability upflow zone. The source of this upflow is a limited fracture system connecting the shallow anomaly with the underlying main reservoir. The outlying low-pressure, low-permeability wells are supplied by lateral flow of steam from the central area. The pressure gradient from the core to the periphery is caused by condensation in the flanks.

Extensive study of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field has provided much geologic and thermodynamic data of its structurally-complex, liquid-dominated reservoir. Several of the studies investigated the resource characteristics of fluid and energy flow. An early report by Mercado (1975) showed that the heat source for the part of the reservoir under development, now called Cerro Prieto I (CPI), originated in the eastern part of the field. Subsequent studies confirmed the flow of hot water from the east. A summary of several experimental and numerical studies of fluid and energy transport in the field was given by Lippmann and Bodvarsson (1983). The hydrogeologic model of Halfman et al. (1982) shows hot-water flow from the east divided into a shallow (alpha) aquifer at about 120Om and a deeper (beta) aquifer at about 170Om depth. A cross section along an east-west direction shows a central upflow to the two aquifers and uncertain geology beyond the western border of the field near well M-9. It also shows a fault dividing the line of border wells at M-29 from the inner wells at M-25 to the east. The hydrogeology of the field was described by Sanchez and de la Pena (1981) as an alluvial unit …

In bringing you up to date on DOE's geothermal R and D programs, they are going to emphasize first those elements that may be of special interest to a reservoir engineering audience, because the activities in support of an improved understanding of hydrothermal reservoirs deserve attention. Reservoir definition, brine injection, and reservoir stimulation technologies are major elements of the Hydrothermal Research Program, and in total they account for nearly 50% of the fiscal year (FY) 1985 hydrothermal research budget. These elements fall into the essential R and D category; that is, while some basic technologies have been borrowed from the petroleum industry for geothermal service, they are often ill-suited to geothermal requirements, and cannot be used without significant technological innovations. Into this category fall the current reservoir technology, brine injection, and reservoir stimulation projects that are listed in Table 1. The reservoir technology projects include: (1) development of methods for characterizing and mapping reservoir parameters, processes, and spatial dimensions; (2) development of methods to predict and monitor reservoir changes from fluid extraction; (3) evaluation of existing methods and development of new methods for predicting the location and mapping faults and fractures in geothermal reservoirs; and (4) testing of new analysis …

A large body of field data from Larderello shows striking temporal correlations between decline of well flow-rate, produced gas/steam ratio, chloride concentration and produced vapor fraction. The latter is inferred from measured concentrations of non-condensible gases in samples of well fluid, using chemical phase equilibrium principles. Observed temporal changes in the vapor fractions can be interpreted in term of a ''multiple source'' model, as suggested by D'Amore and Truesdell (1979). This provides clues to the dynamics of reservoir depletion, and to the evaluation of well productivity and longevity.

This paper presents a transient pressure analysis method for analyzing the rate decline of a constant pressure well producing in an infinite double-porosity reservoir, without wellbore skin. This analysis method may be used to interpret well test rate data, and to compute the rate behavior of an infinitely acting reservoir that is being produced at constant pressure. The development of the pseudo steady state log-log type curve Is presented along with a hypothetical example of its use. This type curve allows the estimation of the two controlling parameters in double-porosity systems: {lambda} and {omega}. The first parameter, {lambda}, describes the interporosity flow, and the second parameter, {omega} describes the relative fracture storativity. This paper considers the estimation of these two parameters. The estimations of permeabilities and storativities have been described in the past, hence, are not considered. In a double-porosity system, with pseudo steady state interporosity flow, the initial infinite acting rate decline, representing only the fracture system, is followed by a constant rate flow period. The length of this constant rate flow period is controlled by the parameter {omega}. The beginning of this period is controlled by the interporosity flow parameter, {lambda}. Following this constant rate period, the rate …

The Geysers was discovered in 1847, and its therapeutic mineral baths were widely recognized by 1880. It was not until 1921, however, that the first steam well at The Geysers was drilled. Between 1922 and 1925, eight additional wells were drilled and tested as reported by Allen and Day. Development activity ceased until 1955 when Magma Power Company drilled the first ''commercial'' well. This success led to additional drilling in the Thermal Shallow Reservoir and the commissioning of a 12 MW power plant in September 1960, followed by a 14 MW power plant in February, 1963. This completed the commercial development of the Thermal shallow Reservoir.

The boundaries of reservoir fluid convection cells are discreet and intricate zones, commonly sealed or reduced in permeabilities, which are often quite readily identifiable in many hydrothermal systems. Cell boundaries in the Geysers Steam Field are more vague; however, they are gradually being revealed by cumulative and extensive wellbore data. A profound example of a type of boundary has been revealed by drilling in one area of the steam field. A proposed model utilizes a sericitic alteration scheme to establish cell self-sealing. Mineralogical, permeability, and temperature properties all coincide so as to allow formation of a boundary model. This reinforces previously held views that the reservoir cell rock and hydrothermal system are greatly out of equilibrium. Such similar phenomena are suggested from drilling experiences in other parts of the steam field. Considerably, more work is required to better define and comprehend the nature and location of reservoir cell boundaries within the Geysers Steam Field.

Analysis of an extended flow test of well ST-1 on the flanks of Makushin Volcano indicates an extensive, water-dominated, naturally fractured reservoir. The reservoir appears to be capable of delivering extremely large flows when tapped by full-size production wells. A productivity index in excess of 30,000 lb/hr/psi implies a phenomenal permeability-thickness product, in the range of 500,000 to 1,000,000 md-ft. The flowing bottomhole (1,949-foot) temperature of the fluid is 379 F, which is lower than the measured static temperature at that depth (395 F). This phenomenon, coupled with an observed static temperature gradient reversal from the maximum 399 F observed at 1,500 feet, indicates that the reservoir proper is located some distance from the well. presumably it is at a temperature slightly lower than 379 F and communicates with the wellbore via a high conductivity fracture system. A material balance calculation yields an estimate of reserves that are capable of sustaining all of the present power needs of the island (13 {+-} MW peak) with a geothermal power plant for several hundred years. Theoretically, a single large diameter well at the site of ST-1 could satisfy this requirement.

A published method for calculating excess steam is modified in order to make it applicable to the case of a well producing fluid with a high non-condensable gas content. The method is applied to data from a number of wells from Los Azufres. The results show the expected linear relation between excess steam and the molar fraction of CO{sub 2} in the total discharge. The modified method also provides an estimate for the molar fraction of CO{sub 2} in the liquid phase of the reservoir. It is found that this concentration is relatively homogeneous in the southern section of the field, and seems to be slightly smaller in the deeper zones of the northern section. The calculated values of excess steam agree qualitatively, but not quantitatively, with values of steam quality in the undisturbed reservoir calculated by other authors. The calculation of excess steam tends to overestimate steam quality in cases where steam saturation in the reservoir is low, and has the opposite tendency when the steam quality in the reservoir is high. The first type of deviation is explained in terms of the effects of higher mobility of steam in the two-phase zone induced by pressure drawdown. The second …

Reinjection of waste hot water is commonly practiced in most geothermal fields, primarily as a means of disposal. Surface discharge of these waste waters is usually unacceptable due to the resulting thermal and chemical pollution. Although reinjection can help to main reservoir pressure and fluid volume, in some cases a decrease in reservoir productivity has been observed. This is caused by rapid flow of the reinjected water through fractures connecting the injector and producers. As a result, the water is not sufficiently heated by the reservoir rock, and a reduction in enthalpy of the produced fluids is seen. Tracer tests have proven to be valuable to reservoir engineers for the design of a successful reinjection program. By injecting a slug of tracer and studying the discharge of surrounding producing wells, an understanding of the fracture network within a reservoir can be provided. In order to quantify the results of a tracer test, a model that accurately describes the mechanisms of tracer transport is necessary. One such mechanism, dispersion, is like a smearing out of a tracer concentration due to the velocity gradients over the cross section of flow. If a dispersion coefficient can be determined from tracer test data, the …

Turkey is classified among countries which have high geothermal energy potential. Geological and geophysical explorations are continuing in promising areas. However primary emphasis was given to Western Anatolia during the last decade. As a result of these efforts Kizildere field was developed and power plant was put into operation in February 14, 1984. This paper summarizes the power plant, production problems encountered in wells during the last nine months and future field development plans.

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The FRACSL flow and transport code is under development as part of an effort to improve reservoir characterization techniques. The present version simulates a two-dimensional, isothermal reservoir composed of a global fracture network imbedded in a porous media. FRACSL simulates the hydraulic response of a reservoir to injection or backflow. The code simulates the movement of injected tracers within the reservoir by adding advective and random dispersive motions of discrete particles. FRACSL has been benchmarked against theoretical flow and transport responses in simple systems. It has been used to simulate a benchscale physical model and to correlate flow and dispersion data from the East Mesa Hydrothermal Injection Test Program. Correlation of East Mesa data has provided an estimate of an anisotropic hydraulic conductivity, a natural drift in the reservoir, and dispersivity.

Meager Creek is perhaps the most intensely explored geothermal system occurring in the Cascade and Garibaldi Volcanic Belts. This paper describes the results of new lithologic, petrographic, X-ray, isotopic, and geochemical investigations of core and cuttings from the Meager Creek wells. The data demonstrate that alteration related to the present geothermal system is superimposed on basement rocks which were metamorphosed and intruded by dioritic stocks prior to the onset of volcanism. The geothermal alteration developed mainly after emplacement of hypabyssal dikes associated with Meager Mountain volcanism and is characterized by mineral assemblages consisting primarily of sheet silicates, quartz, carbonate, hematite, iron oxides, pyrite, and minor epidote, potassium feldspar, actinolite and biotite. Permeabilities within the upper portions of the reservoir are low, reflecting filling of the fracture systems by carbonate. Petrographic observations suggest that sealing of the fractures accompanied hydrothermal brecciation and boiling of the fluids.

Geophysical data from surface measurements and downhole pressure/temperature data in northern Kyushu centered around Mount Waita are examined. The study area includes the geothermal fields supplying steam for the Hatchobaru and Ohtake power stations, but also extends a considerable distance to the northwest. Evidence from drilling logs, magnetotelluric surveys, lost-circulation horizons, downhole temperature surveys, and thermal and chemical properties of surface hot-spring discharge suggests the presence of a large geothermal reservoir north of the towns of Takenoyu and Hagenoyu.

The large Thermal Landslide overlies the initial area of geothermal development at The Geysers. The landslide is waterbearing while the underlying Franciscan formation bedrock units are essentially non-waterbearing except where affected by hydrothermal alteration. Perched ground water moving through the landslide is heated prior to discharge as spring flow.

One of the major concerns of electric utilities in installing geothermal power plants is not only the longevity of the steam supply, but also the potential for changes in thermodynamic properties of the resource that might reduce the conversion efficiency of the design plant equipment. Production was initiated at Los Azufres geothermal field with wellhead generators not only to obtain electric energy at a relatively early date, but also to acquire needed information about the resource so that plans for large central power plants could be finalized. Commercial electric energy production started at Los Azufres during the summer of 1982 with five 5-MWe wellhead turbine-generator units. The wells associated with these units had undergone extensive testing and have since been essentially in constant production. The Los Azufres geothermal reservoir is a complex structural and thermodynamic system, intersected by at least 4 major parallel faults and producing geothermal fluids from almost all water to all steam. The five wellhead generators are associated with wells of about 30%, 60%, and 100% steam fraction. A study to compile existing data on the chemical and reservoir conditions during the first two years of operation has been completed. Data have been compiled on mean values …

Miravalles geothermal field lies in the Guanacaste province of Costa Rica in Central America. At the time of the study (late 1982), three wells (named PGM-1, PGM-2 and PGM-3), had been drilled and periodically tested in this field during 1980-82. During several of these tests scaling of the wellbore appeared to be a serious problem. This paper presents a portion of a study conducted to define the nature and causes of the scaling problem. No new data were gathered during this study; it was based on the analysis of already existing data as of late 1982. The main limitations in the data as regards this study were: (1) no bottomhole pressure measurements had been made; (2) no temperature or pressure profile under flowing condition was available from any well; (3) a wellhead separator was available at only one well (PGM-1); and (4) although James' lip pressure measurement facilities were available at all wells, in some of the earlier tests (up to May 1981) no measurement of the liquid flow rate was made. The fact that there was scale deposition in the Miravalles wells was indicated by several observations: (1) unusually rapid decline had been experienced in both flow rate and …

A large number of studies have been published in the past 10 to 12 years dealing with solute transport in fractured media. The vast majority of this work deals with solute transport in single fractures. Much of this work has been motivated by the need for a repository for storage of nuclear wastes that is safely sequestered from man and the environment. A number of papers deal with dual porosity aquifers, where fractures occur in a rock that also contains primary porosity. Usually, the permeability of the matrix blocks is considered insignificant relative to the permeability of the fracture system. The matrix blocks do not participate in fluid flow through the rock, but can be involved in heat transfer and solute retardation phenomena. Diffusive transfer between fractures and the rock matrix is the mechanism for heat transfer and retardation of solutes. None of the approaches deals with advective transport between fracture and matrix. Solute transport in the fracture is either by advection alone or by advection and dispersion based on a one dimensional solution to the advection-dispersion equation. Research at EG and G is currently oriented at perfecting techniques for simulation of this type of dual permeability fracture system. Simulation …

We have devised a simple method to assess the natural thermodynamic state of two-phase reservoirs. This is usually a complex task. The method is based on inferring sandface flowing pressures and enthalpies from production output (deliverability) curves, and then extrapolating to shutin conditions in the pressure-enthalpy plane. The method was applied to data from 10 wells of the Los Azufres geothermal field. Comparison of the results with measured pressures and temperatures showed that the method is reliable. We present detailed thermodynamic properties of the unperturbed reservoir fluid in the neighborhood of the wells studied, in tabular form. Moreover, we present a match to these results with a very simple model that allows reasonable estimates of natural thermodynamic conditions as functions of height above sea level. The present results have important implications for the assessment of the fluid reserves, which are suggested to be greater than previously thought.

The Nesjavellir High Temperature Geothermal Field is located in the Northern part of the Hengill Geothermal Area, which has been estimated to be one of the largest geothermal areas in iceland. Drilling started at Nesjavellir some 20 years ago with five wells. In 1982 a renewed exploration phase began and five additional wells have been drilled during the last three years. The pressure distribution within the geothermal system is very inhomogeneous in both horizontal and vertical directions. Variations in temperature are also considerable. The highest pressure and temperature is found in the southwestern part of the investigated area and both pressure and temperature decreases towards northeast. There seem to be four different zones of pressure potential in the system, which require the existence of both horizontal and vertical barriers in the system. Some parts of the geothermal system are in two-phase condition whereas other parts are in single phase liquid condition. The chemical composition of the fluid seem to be relatively uniform and a common origin of the fluid is assumed. The transmissivity of wells is in the range (1,3-3,5) 10{sup -8} m{sup 3}/Pa {center_dot} s whereas the flowing enthalpy ranges from 1200-2100 kJ/kg. The thermal output of wells are …

The Pauzhetka hydrothermal system is located in a volcano-tectonic depression near active volcanic centers. Temperatures at depths of 300-800 m are 180-210 C. The natural discharge of the hydrothermal system includes the discharge of the Pauzhetka springs and a concealed discharge in the bed of the Pauzhetka River (95 kg/s) and the steam discharge in the Kambalny Ridge (15 kg/s). Only the upper part of geothermal reservoir was penetrated by drillholes (up to 1200 m), therefore they have used a mathematical modeling to assess the conditions of water and heat feeding of the hydrothermal system. The hydrothermal system belongs to a linear fracturing zone of NW trend, therefore the two-dimensional model was used in the calculations. It has been defined that (1) the source of heating is a magma chamber located at a shallow depth; (2) the heat and mass transfer in the geothermal reservoir is defined by free and forced hydraulic convection, (3) the conductivity coefficient of a linear fracturing zone is 400-600 m{sup 2}/day, its width is 2 km and length is 10 km, and (4) the water feeding is defined by infiltration in the recharge area. Calculations of temperature and velocity fields agree with real data obtained …

Mokai is a recently-explored geothermal field in New Zealand. After drilling 6 wells, it is clear that there exists an extremely productive reservoir. The future exploration and development options are evaluated to find the most economic path to a developed resource. The basic tradeoff considered is between additional proving effort, and the consequent expense and, more importantly, delay. For fields of the generally very productive type found in New Zealand, comparatively little proving appears justified.

The Hawaii Geothermal Project (HGP-A) well, located in the Kilauea volcano east rift zone, was drilled to a depth of 6450 feet in 1976. It is considered to be one of the hot-test producing geothermal wells in the world. This single well provides 52,800 pounds per hour of 371 F and 160 pounds per square inch-absolute (psia) steam to a 3-megawatt power plant, while the separated brine is discharged in percolating ponds. About 50,000 pounds per hour of 368 F and 155 psia brine is discharged. Geothermal energy development has increased steadily in Hawaii since the completion of HGP-A in 1976: (1) a 3 megawatt power plant at HGP-A was completed and has been operating since 1981; (2) Hawaiian Electric Company (HECO) has requested that their next increment in power production be from geothermal steam; (3) three development consortia are actively, or in the process of, drilling geothermal exploration wells on the Big Island; and (4) engineering work on the development of a 400 megawatt undersea cable for energy transmission is continuing, with exploratory discussions being initiated on other alternatives such as hydrogen. The purpose for establishing the Puna Geothermal Research Facility (PGRF) is multifold. PGRF provides a facility in …