The La Primavera geothermal field is located about 20 km west of the city of Guadalajara, Jalisco, in the western part of the Mexican Neovolcanic Axis. Initial results of five deep exploration wells (down to 2000 m depth) were very promising; measured downhole temperatures exceed 300{degrees}C. During production, however, downhole temperatures dropped, and the chemistry of the fluids changed. The analysis of geologic, mineralogic, geochemical, and well completion data indicate that colder fluids flow down the wellbore from shallower aqifers cooling the upper zones of the gothermal reservoir. This problem is attributed to inadequate well completions. Doubts have arisen about continuing the exploration of the field because of the somewhat disappointing drilling results. However, a more thorough analysis of all available data indicates that a good geothermal prospect might exist below 3000 m, and that it could be successfully developed with appropriately located and completed wells.

Recently a significant role of artificial and/or natural cracks in the geothermal reservoir has been demonstrated in the literatures (Abe, H., et al., 1983, Nielson, D.L. and Hullen, J.B., 1983), where the cracks behave as fluid paths and/or heat exchanging surfaces. Until now, however, there are several problems such as a design procedure of hydraulic fracturing, and a quantitative estimate of fluid and heat transfer for reservoir design. In order to develop a design methodology of geothermal reservoir cracks, a special distinguished research project, named as ''{Lambda}-Project'', started at Tohoku University (5 years project, 1983-1988). In this project a basic fracture mechanics model of geothermal reservoir cracks is being demonstrated and its validation is being discussed both theoretically and experimentally. This paper descibes an outline of ''{Lambda}-Project''.

A basic concept of the geothermal reservoir as a set of cracks is first presented. Extensions of subsurface cracks during well stimulation treatments at Nigorikawa(Mori) and closure operations of production well-head valves at Kakkonda are analysed and their behaviors are demonstrated based on results of long-distance AE Measurements.

Five new gas geothermometers are introduced. They are useful for predicting subsurface temperatures in water dominated geothermal systems. The geothermometers use data on CO{sub 2}, H{sub 2}S and H{sub 2} concentrations in fumarole steam as well as CO{sub 2}/H{sub 2} and H{sub 2}S/H{sub 2} ratios. It is demonstrated that the gas composition of fumarole steam may be used with or withour drillhole data to evaluate steam condensation in the upflow zones of geothermal systems. Uncertainty exists, however, in distinguishing between the effects of steam condensation and phase separation at elevated pressures. The gas content in steam from discharging wells and the solute content of the water phase can be used to evaluate which boiling processes lead to "excess steam" in the discharge and at which temperature this "excess steam" is added to the fluid moving through the aquifer and into the well. Examples, using field data, are given to demonstrate all the mentioned applications of geothermal chemistry.

This report is about perceptions of national energy problem

Plutonium fueled radioisotopic heat sources find space, terrestrial, and undersea applications to generate electrical power. Such systems under postulated accident conditions could release radioactivity into the environment resulting in risks to the general population in the form of radiological doses and associated health effects. The evaluation of the radiological impact of postulated scenarios involving releases of activity into the environment includes identification of postulated accident release modes, including the probability of release and the release location; source term definition, including the activity of each radionuclide released and the corresponding chemical form and particle size distribution; analysis of the environmental behavior of the released radioactivity to determine the concentrations in environmental media (air, soil, and water) as a function of time; and analysis of the interaction between the environmental concentrations and man, leading to ingestion, inhalation, and external doses through each environmental exposure pathway. 443 refs., 2 figs., 4 tabs.

Plutonium-fueled radioisotopic heat sources find application in a spectrum of space, terrestrial, and underseas applications to generate electrical power by thermoelectric or dynamic-cycle conversion. Such systems under postulated accident conditions could release radioactivity into the environment resulting in risks to the general population. The released radioactivity could be dispersed into various environmental media, such as air, soil, and water and interact with people through various exposure pathways leading to inhalation, ingestion, and external radiological doses and associated health effects. The authors developed short-term exposure (RISK II) and long-term exposure (RISK III) models for use in safety risk assessments of space missions utilizing plutonium-fueled electric power systems. To effectively use these models in risk assessments, representative input values must be selected for a spectrum of environmental transfer parameters that characterize the behavior of plutonium in the environment. The selection of appropriate transfer parameters to be used in a given analysis will depend on the accident scenarios to be modeled and the terrestrial and aquatic environments to be encountered. The authors reviewed the availability of plutonium in the environment. This report summarizes the research programs presently being conducted at six Department of Energy Laboratories and makes recommendations on areas where further research …

Data from a seven week pressure interference test in the Klamath Falls, Oregon geothermal resource have been analyzed. The data indicate that productive wells are fed by a highly permeable fracture network and that the less permeable matrix blocks contribute significantly to the reservoir storage capacity. Detailed analysis of data from two wells is presented. Data from both of the wells yield a reservoir permeability-thickness (kh) of approximately 1.3x10{sup 6} md-ft and a storativity of 6.8x10{sup -3} ft/psi. The parameters ({lamda} and {omega}), which are determined by the distribution of permeability and storativity between the matrix and fractures, vary by more than an order of magnitude. A sensitivity study shows that for these wells, the pressure transients are not very sensitive to the distribution of permeability and storativity between the fractures and matrix blocks. No hydrologic boundaries were detected during the test. This indicates that the fault which supplies hot water to the shallow hydrothermal system does not behave according to the cassical model of either a barrier or constant potential boundary.

Temperature and related records from 28 wells in the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA) although somewhat constrained from accuracy by data gathering methods, extrapolate to undisturbed formation temperatures at specific depths below permafrost, and lead to calculated geothermal graidents between these depths. Tabulation of the results show that extrapolated undisturbed temperatures range from a minimum of 98/sup 0/F (37/sup 0/C) at 4000 feet (1220 m) to a maximum of 420/sup 0/F (216/sup 0/C) at 20,260 feet (6177 m) and that geothermal gradients range from 0.34/sup 0/F/100' (6/sup 0/C/km) between 4470 feet to 7975 feet (Lisburne No. 1) and 3.15/sup 0/F/100' (57/sup 0/C/km) between 6830 feet to 7940 feet (Drew Point No. 1). Essential information needed for extrapolations consists of: time-sequential bottom-hole temperatures during wire-line logging of intermediate and deep intervals of the borehole; the times that circulating drilling fluids had disturbed the formations; and the subsequent times that non-circulating drilling fluids had been in contact with the formation. In several wells presumed near direct measures of rock temperatures recorded from formation fluids recovered by drill stem tests (DST) across thin (approx. 10-20 foot) intervals are made available. We believe that the results approach actual values close enough to serve …

Numerical simulators developed for geothermal reservoir engineering applications generally only consider systems which are saturated with liquid water and/or steam. However, most geothermal fields are in hydraulic communicatino with shallow ground water aquifers having free surface (water level), so that production or injection operations will cause movement of the surface, and of the air in the pore spaces above the water level. In some geothermal fields the water level is located hundreds of meters below the surface (e.g. Olkaria, Kenya; Bjornsson, 1978), so that an extensive so that an extensive unsaturated zone is present. In other the caprock may be very leaky or nonexistent [e.g., Klamath Falls, oregon (Sammel, 1976)]; Cerro Prieto, Mexico; (Grant et al., 1984) in which case ther eis good hydraulic communication between the geothermal reservoir and the shallow unconfined aquifers. Thus, there is a need to explore the effect of shallow free-surface aquifers on reservoir behavior during production or injection operations. In a free-surface aquifer the water table moves depending upon the rate of recharge or discharge. This results in a high overall storativity; typically two orders of magnitude higher than that of compressed liquid systems, but one or two orders of magnitude lower than that …

The cost effectiveness of fracture stimulation at The Geysers, the Imperial Valley, and other geothermal resource areas in the United States vas studied using GEOCOM, a computer code for analyzing the impact of completion activities on the life-cycle costs of geothermal wells. Technologies for fracturing the reservoir near the wellbore involve the creation of a pressure pulse in the wellbore by means of either hydraulic or explosive force. The cost of a single fracture stimulation job can vary from $50,000 to over $500,000, with a typical cost of around $300,000. The code shows that additional flow achieved by fracture stimulation must exceed 10,000 pounds per hour for each $100,000 invested in stimulation in order for a fracture treatment to be cost effective. In some reservoirs, this additional flow must be as great as 30,000 pounds per hour. The cost effectiveness of fracturing has not yet been demonstrated in the field. The Geothermal Well Stimulation Program achieved an overall average of about 10,000 pounds per hour for each $100,000 invested.

Geothermal resource investigations have been conducted for the past four years on Unalaska Island in the Aleutian Chain. The focus of the work has been Makushin Volcano, about 12 miles from the cities of Unalaska and Dutch Harbor. In the summer of 1982, three widely spaced deep temperature gradient holes were drilled which encountered high temperatures. During the summer of 1983, a three inch diameter "slim hole" well, ST-1, was drilled to 1,949 feet. A shallow, low pressure, steam zone and a relatively productive hot water zone at total depth were encountered. The lower zone produced 47,000 lb/hr, limited by reaching critical mass velocity at the orifice. The static bottomhole pressure and temperature were 478 psig and 379{degrees}F, respectively. Analysis of transient pressure and flow data yielded a productivity inex of 3,470 lb/hr/psi and a permeability-thickness of 50,900 md-ft for the three-foot (at the wellbore) lower zone fracture. A preliminary reservoir/wellbore flow evaluation for a possible power plant indicates two commercial-size wells could fuel a 10 megawatt facility.

Injection-backflow tracer testing on a single well is not a commonly used procedure for geothermal reservoir evaluation, and, consequently, there is little published information on the character or interpretation of tracer recovery curves. Two field experiments were conducted to develop chemical tracer procedures for use with injection-backflow testing, one on the fracture-permeability Raft River reservoir and the other on the matrix-permeability East Mesa reservoir. Results from tests conducted with incremental increases in the injection volume at both East Mesa and Raft River suggests that, for both reservoirs, permeability remained uniform with increasing distance from the well bore. Increased mixing during quiescent periods, between injection and backflow, at Raft River suggest an area near the well bore that has a hydrologic character different from the far well bore environment. Increased flow rates for East Mesa testing resulted in a general decrease in mixing. Comparison of recovery curves from the Raft River reservoir with those from the East Mesa reservoir suggests that mixing is greatest, and therefore permeability is greatest, in the fractured reservoir. These test results indicate that injection-backflow testing with tracers can be used successfully to characterize flow in the near-well bore environment.

Mofete field, located near Naples, in southern Italy, lies within the large Campi Flegrei caldera. Drilling for geothermal fluids was carried out unsuccessfully in 1939-1954. AGIP, in joint venture with the national utility ENEL, after intensive exploration efforts, resumed drilling at the end of 1978; several new deep wells indicate the presence of a water dominated field in Mofete with three reservoirs (only the shallowest of which was reached by previous wells). The deepest aquifer, tapped by well Mofete 5 at the depth of about 2700 m, contains hypersaline fluids (about 516000 ppm TDS at atmospheric conditions corresponding to about 150000 ppm in the reservoir) with a bottom hole temperature of about 360{degrees}C. The intermediate level, reached by well Mofete 2 at 1900 m depth, is characterized by low salinity fluids (about 38000 ppm TDS at the surface corresponding to 18000 ppm calculated in the reservoir) with a reservoir temperature of 340{degrees}C. The uppermost reservoir, tapped by wells Mofete 1, 3D, 7D, 8D and 9D ranges between 550 and 1500 m depth and has water with salinity ranging from 40000 to 76000 ppm TDS at the surface corresponding to 28000 to 52000 ppm in the reservoir with a bottom temperature …

The Sodium Reactor Experiment (SRE) located at the Rockwell International Field Laboratories northwest of Los Angeles was developed to demonstrate a sodium-cooled, graphite-moderated reactor for civilian use. The reactor reached full power in May 1958 and provided 37 GWh to the Southern California Edison Company grid before it was shut down in 1967. Decommissioning of the SRE began in 1974 with the objective of removing all significant radioactivity from the site and releasing the facility for unrestricted use. Planning documentation was prepared to describe in detail the equipment and techniques development and the decommissioning work scope. A plasma-arc manipulator was developed for remotely dissecting the highly radioactive reactor vessels. Other important developments included techniques for using explosives to cut reactor vessel internal piping, clamps, and brackets; decontaminating porous concrete surfaces; and disposing of massive equipment and structures. The documentation defined the decommissioning in an SRE dismantling plan, in activity requirements for elements of the decommissioning work scope, and in detailed procedures for each major task.

The Cerro Prieto geothermal field is a liquid-dominated geothermal reservoir of complex geological and hydrological structure. It is located at the southern end of the Salton-Mexicali trough which includes other geothermal anomalies as Heber and East Mesa. Although in 1973, the initial power plant installed capacity was 75 MW of electrical power, this amount increased to 180 MW in 1981 as field development continued. It is expected to have a generating capacity of 620 MW by the end of 1985, when two new plants will be completely in operation. Questions about field deliverability, reservoir life and ultimate recovery related to planned installations are being presently asked. Numerical modeling studies can give very valuable answers to these questions, even at the early stages in the development of a field. An effort to simulate the Cerro Prieto geothermal reservoir has been undergoing for almost two years. A joint project among Comision Federal de Electricidad (CFE), Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas (IIE) and Intercomp of Houstin, Texas, was created to perform reservoir engineering and simulation studies on this field. The final project objective is tosimulate the behavior of the old field region when production from additional wells located in the undeveloped field zones will …

This paper consists of two parts and an appendix. In the first part a review is made of the geothermal activity in Italy from 1975 to 1982, including electrical and non-electrical applications. Remarks then follow on the trends that occurred and the operational criteria that were applied in the same period, which can be considered a transitional period of geothermal development in Italy. Information on recent trends and development objectives up to 1990 are given in the second part of the paper, together with a summary on program activities in the various geothermal areas of Italy. The appendix specifically reviews the main reseroir engineering activities carried out in the past years and the problems likely to be faced in the coming years in developing Itallian fields.

General features of the geometry of Los Azufres reservoir have been defined through the mapping of hydrothermal mineral alteration zones. Hydrothermal alteration has been studied in cuttings and drill cores from most of the active wells. X-ray diffraction microprobe analysis and classical optical methods have been employed for the identification of primary and authigenic minerals in fresh and altered samples. Observed patterns of alteration have been correlated with temperature and patterns of fluid circulation. The resulting model depicts a body of geothermal fluid at depth, which ascends and discharges through two main fracture systems. These two circulation zones are characterized by concentric aureoles of increasing hydrothermal alteration towards quasivertical axes. The overall pattern could be described as a dome structure produced by the abnormal thermal gradient, distorted by the effects of active upward circulation of the fluids.

Consider a transport line that consists of periodic cells. Let the beam position monitors and the orbit correctors be located with the same period as the cells and let the BPM's and the corrector distributions interlace each other. The arrangement does not always provide a stable orbit correction. The criterion for stability has been derived by Joe Murray and is reproduced. We calculate the rms orbit, the effect of BPM errors and the rms corrector strength in such correction schemes, yielding analytic formulae for these quantities. We then apply these formulae to the SLC arcs.

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In order to evaluate geothermal reserves, it is necessary to estimate the porosity-thickness product of the reservoir. This paper deals with the method for estimating the porosity-thickness product of geothermal reservoirs by means of combining well interference and pressure buildup tests. A field study from the Chingshui geothermal area in Taiwan is given to illustrate the application of the method.

This paper describes the experimental work and presents the results of a research program carried out to investigate the thermal expansion behavior of sedimentary rocks under high stress conditions. The aspects that were investigated include the effects of temperature, temperature cycling, and confining pressure. Furthermore, the validity of the usual assumption on thermal expansion isotropy was investigated. On the other hand, the matrix thermal expansion concept is analyzed and its physical meaning and aplications are discussed. The effect of temperature on porosity is also a subject investigated regarding experimental methods for its estimation and comparison of earlier results. The experiments carried out consisted basically of thermal strain versus temperature measurements on jacketed and unjacketed samples subjected to different confining pressures and covering the temperature range from 25 C to 280 C and the pressure range from 3.0 MPa to 34.4 MPa. A review of earlier work is included as a reference frame to discuss and compare the results of this work, as well as to emphasize the limited extent of the research on thermal expansion behavior of sedimentary rocks that had been accomplished. Results are presented by means of thermal strain versus temperature curves and tabular data of thermal expansion …

Considering various possible chemical reactions between N{sub 2} and other gas species present in the geothermal fluid, the following reaction has been individuated: C + 1/2 N{sub 2} + 7/2 H{sub 2} = NH{sub 3} + CH{sub 4} which is generally satisfied for plausible thermodynamic reservoir conditions (temperature and the relative contributions of steam and liquid to fluid production) at Larderello and Cerro Prieto.

A study of the temporal behaviour of gas compsition in the Larderello-Castelnuovo area shows that this behaviour varies, depending on whether the wells are affected or not by natural recharge. Where no natural recharge exists, gas composition seems to be governed by chemical equilibria. The recharge water, and the steam it produces, mix with the fluid already existing in the reservoir. At Larderello (far from absorption areas) the gas composition resulting from this mixing does not undergo further changes by chemical reaction. This is due either to a lack of reactivity where there is no liquid phase or to an ineffective fluid-rock interaction. At Castelnuovo (close to absorption areas) the H{sub 2}S and CH{sub 4} contents in the gas have gradually decreased with the increase in recharge effects. The decrease in H{sub 2}S can be attributed to dissolution in liquid water and oxidation. Various hypotheses have been forwarded for the methane. The correlation existing between CH{sub 4} and N{sub 2} concentrations, even when methane decreases in the areas affected by recharge, suggests that CH{sub 4} may be governed by more than just the Fisher-Tropsch reaction.