The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Solar Radiometry and Metrology task provides traceable optical radiometric calibrations and measurements to photovoltaic (PV) researchers and the PV industry. Traceability of NREL solar radiometer calibrations to the World Radiometric Reference (WRR) was accomplished during Pyrheliometer Comparison at NREL in October 2004. Ten spectral and more than 200 broadband radiometers for solar measurements were calibrated this year. We measured detailed spectral distributions of the NREL and PV industry Pulsed Solar Simulators and are analyzing the influence of environmental variables on radiometer uncertainty. New systems for indoor and outdoor solar radiometer calibrations and ultraviolet (UV) spectral measurements and UV radiometer calibrations were purchased and tested. Optical metrology functions support the NREL Measurement and Characterization Task effort for ISO 17025 accreditation of NREL Solar Reference Cell Calibrations and have been integrated into the NREL quality system and audited for ISO17025 compliance.

We present a computational study of signal propagation and attenuation of a 200 MHz planar loop antenna in a cave environment. The cave is modeled as a straight and lossy random rough wall. To simulate a broad frequency band, the full wave Maxwell equations are solved directly in the time domain via a high order vector finite element discretization using the massively parallel CEM code EMSolve. The numerical technique is first verified against theoretical results for a planar loop antenna in a smooth lossy cave. The simulation is then performed for a series of random rough surface meshes in order to generate statistical data for the propagation and attenuation properties of the antenna in a cave environment. Results for the mean and variance of the power spectral density of the electric field are presented and discussed.

Worldwide data on terrorist incidents between 1968 and 2004 gathered by the RAND corporation and the Oklahoma City National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism (MIPT) were assessed for patterns and trends in morbidity/mortality. Adjusted data analyzed involve a total of 19,828 events, 7,401 ''adverse'' events (each causing {ge}1 victim), and 86,568 ''casualties'' (injuries) of which 25,408 were fatal. Most terror-related adverse events, casualties and deaths involved bombs and guns. Weapon-specific patterns and terror-related risk levels in Israel (IS) have differed markedly from those of all other regions combined (OR). IS had a fatal fraction of casualties about half that of OR, but has experienced relatively constant lifetime terror-related casualty risks on the order of 0.5%--a level 2 to 3 orders of magnitude more than those experienced in OR that increased {approx}100-fold over the same period. Individual event fatality has increased steadily, the median increasing from 14 to 50%. Lorenz curves obtained indicate substantial dispersion among victim/event rates: about half of all victims were caused by the top 2.5% (or 10%) of harm-ranked events in OR (or IS). Extreme values of victim/event rates were approximated fairly well by generalized Pareto models (typically used to fit to data on forest …

Incorporation of adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) into Lagrangian hydrodynamics algorithms allows for the creation of a highly powerful simulation tool effective for complex target designs with three-dimensional structure. We are developing an advanced modeling tool that includes AMR and traditional arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) techniques. Our goal is the accurate prediction of vaporization, disintegration and fragmentation in National Ignition Facility (NIF) experimental target elements. Although our focus is on minimizing the generation of shrapnel in target designs and protecting the optics, the general techniques are applicable to modern advanced targets that include three-dimensional effects such as those associated with capsule fill tubes. Several essential computations in ordinary radiation hydrodynamics need to be redesigned in order to allow for AMR to work well with ALE, including algorithms associated with radiation transport. Additionally, for our goal of predicting fragmentation, we include elastic/plastic flow into our computations. We discuss the integration of these effects into a new ALE-AMR simulation code. Applications of this newly developed modeling tool as well as traditional ALE simulations in two and three dimensions are applied to NIF early-light target designs.

Thin hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) layers deposited by hot-wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD) are used as both emitters and back contacts in silicon heterojunction solar cells. Low interface recombination velocity and high open-circuit voltage are achieved by a low substrate temperature (<150 deg C) intrinsic a-Si:H deposition which ensures immediate amorphous silicon deposition. This is followed by deposition of doped a-Si:H at a higher temperature (>200 deg C) which appears to improve dopant activation. With an i/n a-Si:H emitter, we obtain a confirmed efficiency of 17.1% on textured p-type float-zone (FZ) silicon with a screen-printed aluminum back-surface-field (Al-BSF) contact. Employing a-Si:H as both the front emitter and the back contact, we achieve a confirmed efficiency of 17.5%, the highest reported efficiency for a p-type c-Si based heterojunction solar cell.

A multi-wavelength laser based system has been constructed to measure defect induced beam modulation (diffraction) from ICF class laser optics. The Nd:YLF-based modulation measurement system (MMS) uses simple beam collimation and imaging to capture diffraction patterns from optical defects onto an 8-bit digital camera at 1053, 527 and 351 nm. The imaging system has a field of view of 4.5 x 2.8 mm{sup 2} and is capable of imaging any plane from 0 to 30 cm downstream from the defect. The system is calibrated using a 477 micron chromium dot on glass for which the downstream diffraction patterns were calculated numerically. Under nominal conditions the system can measure maximum peak modulations of approximately 7:1. An image division algorithm is used to calculate the peak modulation from the diffracted and empty field images after the baseline residual light background is subtracted from both. The peak modulation can then be plotted versus downstream position. The system includes a stage capable of holding optics up to 50 pounds with x and y translation of 40 cm and has been used to measure beam modulation due to solgel coating defects, surface digs on KDP crystals, lenslets in bulk fused silica and laser damage sites …

The spectroscopy of neutron-rich {sup 109,110,111,112}Ru nuclei was studied by measuring the prompt {gamma} rays originated from fission fragments, produced by the {sup 238}U({alpha},f) fusion-fission reaction, in coincidence with the detection of both fragments. For {sup 109,111}Ru, both the negative-parity (h{sub 11/2} orbitals) and positive-parity (g{sub 7/2} and/or d{sub 5/2} orbitals) bands were extended to substantially higher spin and excitation energy than known previously. The ground-state and {gamma}-vibrational bands of {sup 110,112}Ru also were extended to higher spin, allowing observation of the second band crossing at the rotational frequency of {approx}450 keV in {sup 112}Ru, which is {approx}50 keV above the first band crossing. At a similar rotational frequency, the first band crossing for the h{sub 11/2} band in {sup 111}Ru was observed, which is absent in {sup 109}Ru. These band crossings most likely are caused by the alignment of the g{sub 9/2} proton pair. This early onset of the band crossing for the aligned {pi}g{sub 9/2} orbitals may be evidence of a triaxial shape transition from prolate to oblate occurring in {sup 111}Ru. The data together with a comparison of cranked shell model predictions are presented.

This paper presents a brief overview of the status and accomplishments during fiscal year (FY) 2005 of the Photovoltaic (PV) Exploratory Reliability and Performance R&D Subtask, which is part of the PV Module Reliability R&D Project (a joint NREL-Sandia project).

We report the two-dimensional alignment of semiconductor islands using rudimentary metal patterning to control nucleation and growth. In the Ge on Si system, a square array of sub-micron Au dots on the Si (001) surface induces the assembly of deposited Ge adatoms into an extensive island lattice. Remarkably, these highly ordered Ge islands form between the patterned Au dots and are characterized by a unique truncated pyramidal shape. A model based on patterned diffusion barriers explains the observed ordering and establishes general criteria for the broader applicability of such a directed assembly process to quantum dot ordering.

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Arizona Public Service (APS) is currently installing new power facilities to generate a portion of its electricity from solar resources that will satisfy its obligation under the Arizona Environmental Portfolio Standard (EPS). During FY04, APS began construction on a 1-MWe parabolic trough concentrating solar power plant. This plant represents the first parabolic trough plant to begin construction since 1991. Site preparation and construction activities continued throughout much of FY05, and startup activities are planned for Fall 2005 (with completion early in FY06). The plant will be the first commercial deployment of the Solargenix parabolic trough collector technology developed under contract to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. The plant will use an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) power plant, provided by Ormat. The ORC power plant is much simpler than the conventional steam Rankine cycle plant and allows unattended operation of the facility.

A poster presentation for AWEA's WindPower 2005 conference in Denver, Colorado, May 15 -18, 2005 that provides an outline of the approach and process used for validating U.S. wind resource maps.

We illustrate the capabilities of the High Voltage Stress Test (HVST) which operates continuously in the array field east of the Outdoor Test Facility at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Because we know that photovoltaic (PV) modules generating electrical power in both residential and utility-scale array installations will develop high-voltage biases approaching 600 VDC and 1,000 VDC, respectively, we expect such high voltages will result in current leakage between cells and ground, typically through the frames or mounts. We know that inevitably such leakage currents are capable of producing electrochemical corrosion that adversely impacts long-term module performance. With the HVST, we stress or operate PV modules under high-voltage bias, to characterize their leakage currents under all prevailing ambient conditions and assess performance changes emanating from high-voltage stress. We perform this test both on single modules and an active array.

We present experimental data of electron energy distributions from ultra-intense (&gt;10{sup 19} W/cm{sup 2}) laser-solid interactions using the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory Vulcan petawatt laser. These measurements were made using a CCD-based magnetic spectrometer. We present details on the distinct effective temperatures that were obtained for a wide variety of targets as a function of laser intensity. It is found that as the intensity increases from 10{sup 17} W/cm{sup 2} to 10{sup 19} W/cm{sup 2}, a 0.4 dependence on the laser intensity is found. Between 10{sup 19} W/cm{sup 2} and 10{sup 20} W/cm{sup 2}, a gradual rolling off of temperature with intensity is observed.

The objective of this research is to determine the operational characteristics key to efficient, low-cost, stable solar cells based on dye-sensitized mesoporous films (in collaboration with DOE's Office of Science Program). Toward this end, we have investigated the mechanism by which the adsorbent chenodeoxycholate, cografted with a sensitizer onto TiO2 nanocrystals, improves the open-circuit photovoltage (VOC) and short-circuit photocurrent density (JSC). We find that adding chenodeoxycholate not only shifts the TiO2 conduction-band edge to negative potentials but also accelerates the rate of recombination. The net effect of these opposing phenomena is to produce a higher photovoltage. It is also found that chenodeoxycholate reduces the dye loading significantly but has only a modest effect on JSC. Implications of these results to developing more efficient cells are discussed.

The force fields used in molecular computational biology are not mathematically defined in such a way that their mathematical representation would facilitate the straightforward application of volume visualization techniques. To visualize energy, it is necessary to define a spatial mapping for these fields. Equipped with such a mapping, we can generate volume renderings of the internal energy states in a molecule. We describe our force field, the spatial mapping that we used for energy, and the visualizations that we produced from this mapping. We provide images and animations that offer insight into the computational behavior of the energy optimization algorithms that we employ.

We have studied structure and electrical properties of Si{sub 1-Y}Ge{sub Y}:H films deposited by low frequency PE CVD over the entire composition range from Y=0 to Y=1. The deposition rate of the films and their structural and electrical properties were measured for various ratios of the germane/silane feed gases and with and without dilution by Ar and by H{sub 2}. Structure and composition was studied by Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Surface morphology was characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM). We found: (1) The deposition rate increased with Y maximizing at Y=1 without dilution. (2) The relative rate of Ge and Si incorporation is affected by dilution. (3) Hydrogen preferentially bonds to silicon. (4) Hydrogen content decreases for increasing Y. In addition, optical measurements showed that as Y goes for 0 to 1, the Fermi level moves from mid gap to the conduction band edge, i.e. the films become more n-type. No correlation was found between the pre-exponential and the activation energy of conductivity. The behavior of the conductivity {gamma}-factor suggests a local minimum in the density of states at E {approx} 0.33 eV for the films grown with or …

We have measured a contrast of 6.5 {center_dot} 10{sup -8} from 10-25{lambda}/D in visible light on the Extreme Adaptive Optics testbed using a shaped pupil for diffraction suppression. The testbed was designed with a minimal number of high-quality optics to ensure low wavefront error and uses a phase shifting diffraction interferometer for metrology. This level of contrast is within the regime needed for imaging young Jupiter-like planets, a primary application of high-contrast imaging. We have concluded that wavefront error, not pupil quality, is the limiting error source for improved contrast in our system.

At the National Ignition Facility (NIF) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), mitigation of laser surface damage growth on fused silica using single and multiple CO{sub 2} laser pulses has been consistently successful for damage sites whose lateral dimensions are less than 100 {micro}m, but has not been for larger sites. Cracks would often radiate outward from the damage when a CO{sub 2} pulse was applied to the larger sites. An investigation was conducted to mitigate large surface damage sites using galvanometer scanning of a tightly focused CO{sub 2} laser spot over an area encompassing the laser damage. It was thought that by initially scanning the CO{sub 2} spot outside the damage site, radiating crack propagation would be inhibited. Scan patterns were typically inward moving spirals starting at radii somewhat larger than that of the damage site. The duration of the mitigation spiral pattern was {approx}110 ms during which a total of {approx}1.3 J of energy was delivered to the sample. The CO{sub 2} laser spot had a 1/e{sup 2}-diameter of {approx}200 {micro}m. Thus, there was general heating of a large area around the damage site while rapid evaporation occurred locally at the laser spot position in the spiral. …

Understanding the behavior of fractures and subsurface damage in the processes used during optic fabrication plays a key role in determining the final quality of the optical surface finish. During the early stages of surface preparation, brittle grinding processes induce fractures at or near an optical surface whose range can extend from depths of a few mm to hundreds of mm depending upon the process and tooling being employed. Controlling the occurrence, structure, and propagation of these sites during subsequent grinding and polishing operations is highly desirable if one wishes to obtain high-quality surfaces that are free of such artifacts. Over the past year, our team has made significant strides in developing a diagnostic technique that combines magnetorheological finishing (MRF) and scanning optical microscopy to measure and characterize subsurface damage in optical materials. The technique takes advantage of the unique nature of MRF to polish a prescribed large-area wedge into the optical surface without propagating existing damage or introducing new damage. The polished wedge is then analyzed to quantify subsurface damage as a function of depth from the original surface. Large-area measurement using scanning optical microscopy provides for improved accuracy and reliability over methods such as the COM ball-dimple technique. …

Developing a theory of low-mass star formation ({approx} 0.1 to 3 M{sub {circle_dot}}) remains one of the most elusive and important goals of theoretical astrophysics. The star-formation process is the outcome of the complex dynamics of interstellar gas involving non-linear interactions of turbulence, gravity, magnetic field and radiation. The evolution of protostellar condensations, from the moment they are assembled by turbulent flows to the time they reach stellar densities, spans an enormous range of scales, resulting in a major computational challenge for simulations. Since the previous Protostars and Planets conference, dramatic advances in the development of new numerical algorithmic techniques have been successfully implemented on large scale parallel supercomputers. Among such techniques, Adaptive Mesh Refinement and Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics have provided frameworks to simulate the process of low-mass star formation with a very large dynamic range. It is now feasible to explore the turbulent fragmentation of molecular clouds and the gravitational collapse of cores into stars self-consistently within the same calculation. The increased sophistication of these powerful methods comes with substantial caveats associated with the use of the techniques and the interpretation of the numerical results. In this review, we examine what has been accomplished in the field and present …

Crystallization of hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) films deposited on low-cost substrates shows potential for solar cell applications. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) was used to study impurity incorporation, hydrogen evolution, and dopant diffusion during the crystallization process

Factors affecting sensing of small quantities of fissionable material in large sea-going cargo containers by neutron interrogation and detection of {beta}-delayed photons are explored. The propagation of variable-energy neutrons in cargos, subsequent fission of hidden nuclear material and production of the {beta}-delayed photons, and the propagation of these photons to an external detector are considered explicitly. Detailed results of Monte Carlo simulations of these stages in representative cargos are presented. Analytical models are developed both as a basis for a quantitative understanding of the interrogation process and as a tool to allow ready extrapolation of the results to cases not specifically considered here.

High quality electron beams with hundreds of picoCoulombs ofcharge inpercent energy spread above 80 MeV were produced for the firsttime in high gradient laser wakefield accelerators by guiding the drivelaser pulse.