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Image acquisition with a CCD camera is a single-press-button activity: after selecting exposure time and adjusting illumination, a button is pressed and the acquired image is perceived as the final, unmodified proof of what was seen in the microscope. Thus it is generally assumed that the image processing steps of e.g., 'dark-current correction' and 'gain normalization' do not alter the information content of the image, but rather eliminate unwanted artifacts. Image quality therefore is, among a long list of other parameters, defined by the dynamic range of the CCD camera as well as the maximum allowable exposure time depending on sample drift (ignoring sample damage). Despite the fact that most microscopists are satisfied with present, standard image quality we found that it is a relatively easy to improve on existing routines in at least two aspects: (1) Suppression of lateral image drift during acquisition by using significantly shorter exposure times with a plurality of exposures (3D-data set); and (2) Improvement in the Signal/Noise ratio by averaging over a given data set by exceeding the dynamic range of the camera.

Recent progress in seismic tomography provides the first complete 3-D images of the combined thermal and chemical anomalies that characterise the unique deep mantle structure below the African continent. With these latest tomography results we predict flow patterns under Africa that reveal a large-scale, active hot upwelling, or superplume, below the western margin of Africa under the Cape Verde Islands. The scale and dynamical intensity of this West African superplume (WASP) is comparable to that of the south African superplume (SASP) that has long been assumed to dominate the flow dynamics under Africa. On the basis of this new tomography model, we find the dynamics of the SASP is strongly controlled by chemical contributions to deep mantle buoyancy that significantly compensate its thermal buoyancy. In contrast, the WASP appears to be entirely dominated by thermal buoyancy. New calculations of mantle convection incorporating these two superplumes reveal that the plate-driving forces due to the flow generated by the WASP is as strong as that due to the SASP. We find that the chemical buoyancy of the SASP exerts a strong stabilising control on the pattern and amplitude of shallow mantle flow in the asthenosphere below the southern half of the African …

We studied the ultrafast insulator-metal transition in a manganite by means of picosecond X-ray absorption at the O K- and Mn L-edges, probing photoinduced changes in O-2p and Mn-3d electronic states near the Fermi level.

The next generation of Electron Cyclotron Resonant (ECR) ion sources are expected to operate at a heating radio frequency greater than 40 GHz. The existing 3rd generation systems, exemplified by the state of the art system VENUS, operate in the 10-28 GHz range, and use NbTi superconductors for the confinement coils. The magnetic field needed to confine the plasma scales with the rf frequency, resulting in peak fields on the magnets of the 4th generation system in excess of 10 T. High field superconductors such as Nb{sub 3}Sn must therefore be considered. The magnetic design of a 4th. generation ECR ion source operating at an rf frequency of 56 GHz is considered. The analysis considers both internal and external sextupole configurations, assuming commercially available Nb{sub 3}Sn material properties. Preliminary structural design issues are discussed based on the forces and margins associated with the coils in the different configurations, leading to quantitative data for the determination of a final magnet design.

We present recent work on a prototype compact neutron generator for associated particle imaging (API). API uses alpha particles that are produced simultaneously with neutrons in the deuterium-tritium (2D(3T,n)4 alpha) fusion reaction to determine the direction of the neutrons upon exiting the reaction. This method determines the spatial position of each neutron interaction and requires the neutrons to be generated from a small spot in order to achieve high spatial resolution. The ion source for API is designed to produce a focused ion beam with a beam spot diameter of 1-mm or less on the target. We use an axial type neutron generator with a predicted neutron yield of 108 n/s for a 50 muA D/T ion beam current accelerated to 80 kV. The generator utilizes a RF planar spiral antenna at 13.56 MHz to create a highly efficient inductively-coupled plasma at the ion source. Experimental results show that beams with an atomic ion fraction of over 80percent can be obtained while utilizing only 100 watts of RF power in the ion source. A single acceleration gap with a secondary electron suppression electrode is used in the tube. Experimental results, such as the current density, atomic ion fraction, electron temperature, …

Some years ago it was suggested that halogen negative ions could offer a feasible alternative path to positive ions as a heavy ion fusion driver beam which would not suffer degradation due to electron accumulation in the accelerator and beam transport system, and which could be converted to a neutral beam by photodetachment near the chamber entrance if desired. Since then, experiments have demonstrated that negative halogen beams can be extracted and accelerated away from the gas plume near the source with a surviving current density close to what could be achieved with a positive ion of similar mass, and with comparable optical quality. In demonstrating the feasibility of halogen negative ions as heavy ion driver beams, ion - ion plasmas, an interesting and somewhat novel state of matter, were produced. These plasmas, produced near the extractor plane of the sources, appear, based upon many lines of experimental evidence, to consist of almost equal densities of positive and negative chlorine ions, with only a small component of free electrons. Serendipitously, the need to extract beams from this plasma for driver development provides a unique diagnostic tool to investigate the plasma, since each component - positive ions, negative ions, and electrons …

The initial dynamics of photo-induced phase transition in charge-ordered organic salt (EDO-TTF){sub 2}PF{sub 6} was investigated using 10-fs near-infrared laser pulses. We observed sub-20-fs gigantic photo-responses (|{Delta}R/R|>100%) due to intra-molecular vibration and a clear signature of a structural bottleneck ({approx}50 fs) for the first time.

A novel voltage monitoring system to record voltage transients in superconducting magnets is being developed at LBNL. This system has 160 monitoring channels capable of measuring differential voltages of up to 1.5kV with 100kHz bandwidth and 500kS/s digitizing rate. This paper presents analysis results from data taken with a 16 channel prototype system. From that analysis we were able to diagnose a change in the current-temperature margin of the superconducting cable by analyzing Flux-Jump data collected after a magnet energy extraction failure during testing of a high field Nb{sub 3}Sn dipole.

Design considerations for a next-generation electron-positron linear collider based on laser-plasma-accelerators are discussed. Several of the advantages and challenges of laser-plasma based accelerator technology are addressed. An example of the parameters for a 1 TeV laser-plasma based collider is presented.

The connection between macro-particle shape functions and non-physical phase-space"heating" in the particle-in-cell (PIC) algorithm is examined. The development of fine-scale phasespace structures starting from a cold initial condition is shown to be related to spatial correlations in the interpolated fields used in the Lorentz force. It is shown that the plasma evolution via the PIC algorithm from a cold initial condition leads to a state that is not consistent with that of a thermal plasma.

Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation Analysis (PGNAA) systems employ neutrons as a probe to interrogate items, e.g. chemical warfare materiel-filled munitions. The choice of a neutron source in field-portable systems is determined by its ability to excite nuclei of interest, operational concerns such as radiological safety and ease-of-use, and cost. Idaho National Laboratory’s PINS Chemical Assay System has traditionally used a Cf-252 isotopic neutron source, but recently a Deuterium-Tritium (DT) Electronic Neutron Generator (ENG) has been tested as an alternate neutron source. This paper presents the results of using both of these neutron sources to interrogate chemical warfare materiel (CWM) and high explosive (HE) filled munitions.

Many techniques that are used to characterize and monitor microbial populations associated with sulfide mineral bioleaching require the cultivation of the organisms on solid or liquid media. Chemolithotrophic species, such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans, or thermophilic chemolithotrophs, such as Acidianus brierleyi and Sulfolobus solfataricus can grow quite slowly, requiring weeks to complete efforts to identify and quantify these microbes associated with bioleach samples. Real-time PCR (polymerase chain reaction) assays in which DNA targets are amplified in the presence of fluorescent oligonucleotide primers, allowing the monitoring and quantification of the amplification reactions as they progress, provide a means of rapidly detecting the presence of microbial species of interest, and their relative abundance in a sample. This presentation will describe the design and use of such assays to monitor acidophilic microbes in the environment and in bioleaching operations. These assays provide results within 2-3 hours, and can detect less than 100 individual microbial cells.

Continuum mechanics relies on the fundamental notion of a mesoscopic volume"element" in which properties averaged over discrete particles obey deterministic relationships. Recent work on granular materials suggests a continuum law may be inapplicable, revealing inhomogeneities at the particle level, such as force chains and slow cage breaking. Here, we analyze large-scale three-dimensional Discrete-Element Method (DEM) simulations of different granular flows and show that an approximate"granular element" defined at the scale of observed dynamical correlations (roughly three to five particle diameters) has a reasonable continuum interpretation. By viewing all the simulations as an ensemble of granular elements which deform and move with the flow, we can track material evolution at a local level. Our results confirm some of the hypotheses of classical plasticity theory while contradicting others and suggest a subtle physical picture of granular failure, combining liquid-like dependence on deformation rate and solid-like dependence on strain. Our computational methods and results can be used to guide the development of more realistic continuum models, based on observed local relationships betweenaverage variables.

Nonspecific hybridization is currently a major concern with microarray technology. One of most effective approaches to estimating nonspecific hybridizations in oligonucleotide microarrays is the utilization of mismatch probes; however, this approach has not been used for longer oligonucleotide probes. Here, an oligonucleotide microarray was constructed to evaluate and optimize parameters for 50-mer mismatch probe design. A perfect match (PM) and 28 mismatch (MM) probes were designed for each of ten target genes selected from three microorganisms. The microarrays were hybridized with synthesized complementary oligonucleotide targets at different temperatures (e.g., 42, 45 and 50 C). In general, the probes with evenly distributed mismatches were more distinguishable than those with randomly distributed mismatches. MM probes with 3, 4 and 5 mismatched nucleotides were differentiated for 50-mer oligonucleotide probes hybridized at 50, 45 and 42 C, respectively. Based on the experimental data generated from this study, a modified positional dependent nearest neighbor (MPDNN) model was constructed to adjust the thermodynamic parameters of matched and mismatched dimer nucleotides in the microarray environment. The MM probes with four flexible positional mismatches were designed using the newly established MPDNN model and the experimental results demonstrated that the redesigned MM probes could yield more consistent hybridizations. Conclusions: …

Compact mono-energetic photon sources are sought for active interrogation systems to detect shielded special nuclear materials in, for example, cargo containers, trucks and other vehicles. A prototype gamma interrogation source has been designed and built that utilizes the 11B(p,gamma)12C reaction to produce 12 MeV gamma-rays which are near the peak of the photofission cross section. In particular, the 11B(p,gamma)12C resonance at 163 kV allows the production of gammas at low proton acceleration voltages, thus keeping the design of a gamma generator comparatively small and simple. A coaxial design has been adopted with a toroidal-shaped plasma chamber surrounding a cylindrical gamma production target. The plasma discharge is driven by a 2 MHz rf-power supply (capable up to 50 kW) using a circular rf-antenna. Permanent magnets embedded in the walls of the plasma chamber generate a multi-cusp field that confines the plasma and allows higher plasma densities and lower gas pressures. About 100 proton beamlets are extracted through a slotted plasma electrode towards the target at the center of the device that is at a negative 180 kV. The target consists of LaB6 tiles that are brazed to a water-cooled cylindrical structure. The generator is designed to operate at 500 Hz with …

Ion beam with a fast fall time is useful in building neutron generators for the application of detecting hidden, gamma-shielded SNM using differential die-away (DDA) technique. Typically a fall time of less than 1 {micro}s can't be achieved by just turning off the power to the ion source due to the slow decay of plasma density (partly determined by the fall time of the RF power in the circuit). In this paper, we discuss the method of using an array of mini-apertures (instead of one large aperture beam) such that gating the beamlets can be done with low voltage and a small gap. This geometry minimizes the problem of voltage breakdown as well as reducing the time of flight to produce fast gating. We have designed and fabricated an array of 16 apertures (4 x 4) for a beam extraction experiment. Using a gating voltage of 1400 V and a gap distance of 1 mm, the fall time of extracted ion beam pulses is less than 1 {micro}s at various beam energies ranging between 400 eV to 800 eV. Usually merging an array of beamlets suffers the loss of beam brightness, i.e., emittance growth, but that is not an important …

We have developed a multiplexed time- and photon-energy?resolved photoionizationmass spectrometer for the study of the kinetics and isomeric product branching of gasphase, neutral chemical reactions. The instrument utilizes a side-sampled flow tubereactor, continuously tunable synchrotron radiation for photoionization, a multi-massdouble-focusing mass spectrometer with 100percent duty cycle, and a time- and positionsensitive detector for single ion counting. This approach enables multiplexed, universal detection of molecules with high sensitivity and selectivity. In addition to measurement of rate coefficients as a function of temperature and pressure, different structural isomers can be distinguished based on their photoionization efficiency curves, providing a more detailed probe of reaction mechanisms. The multiplexed 3-dimensional data structure (intensity as a function of molecular mass, reaction time, and photoionization energy) provides insights that might not be available in serial acquisition, as well as additional constraints on data interpretation.

High intensity hadron beams of up to 2 MW beam power are a key element of new proposed experimental facilities at Fermilab. Project X, which includes a SCRF 8 GeV H{sup -} linac, will be the centerpiece of future HEP activities in the neutrino sector. After a short overview of this, and other proposed projects, we present the current status of the beam instrumentation activities at Fermilab with a few examples. With upgrades and improvements they can meet the requirements of the new beam facilities, however design and development of new instruments is needed, as shown by the prototype and conceptual examples in the last section.

Terminal erythroid differentiation in vertebrates is characterized by progressive heterochromatin formation, chromatin condensation and, in mammals, culminates in nuclear extrusion. To date, although mechanisms regulating avian erythroid chromatin condensation have been identified, little is known regarding this process during mammalian erythropoiesis. To elucidate the molecular basis for mammalian erythroblast chromatin condensation, we used Friend virus-infected murine spleen erythroblasts that undergo terminal differentiation in vitro. Chromatin isolated from early and late stage erythroblasts had similar levels of linker and core histones, only a slight difference in nucleosome repeats, and no significant accumulation of known developmentally-regulated architectural chromatin proteins. However, histone H3(K9) dimethylation markedly increased while histone H4(K12) acetylation dramatically decreased and became segregated from the histone methylation as chromatin condensed. One histone deacetylase, HDAC5, was significantly upregulated during the terminal stages of Friend virus-infected erythroblast differentiation. Treatment with histone deacetylase inhibitor, trichostatin A, blocked both chromatin condensation and nuclear extrusion. Based on our data, we propose a model for a unique mechanism in which extensive histone deacetylation at pericentromeric heterochromatin mediates heterochromatin condensation in vertebrate erythroblasts that would otherwise be mediated by developmentally-regulated architectural proteins in nucleated blood cells.

A spatial survey of the chemical and isotopic composition of fluids from the Long Valley hydrothermal system was conducted. Starting at the presumed hydrothermal upwelling zone in the west moat of the caldera, samples were collected from the Casa Diablo geothermal field and a series of monitoring wells defining a nearly linear, ~;;14 km long, west-to-east trend along the proposed fluid flow path (Sorey et al., 1991). Samples were analyzed for the isotopes of water, Sr, Ca, and noble gases, the concentrations of major cations and anions and total CO2. Our data confirm earlier models in which the variations in water isotopes along the flow path reflect mixing of a single hydrothermal fluid with local groundwater. Variations in Sr data are poorly constrained and reflect fluid mixing, multiple fluid-pathways or water-rock exchange along the flow path as suggested by Goff et al. (1991). Correlated variations among total CO2, noble gases and the concentration and isotopic composition of Ca suggest progressive fluid degassing (loss of CO2, noble gases) driving calcite precipitation as the fluid flows west-to-east across the caldera. This is the first evidence that Ca isotopes may trace and provide definitive evidence of calcite precipitation along fluid flow paths in …

Cyclotrons, rings for precise nuclear mass spectrometry, and some light sources with extremely short bunches are operated or planned to be operated in the isochronous or almost isochronous regime. Also, many hadron synchrotrons run in the isochronous regime for a short period of time during transition crossing. The longitudinal motion is frozen in the isochronous regime that leads to accumulation of the integral of the longitudinal space charge force. In low-gamma hadron machines, this can cause a fast growth of the beam energy spread even at modest beam intensities. Additionally, the transverse component of the space charge effectively modifies the dispersion function and the slip factor shifting the isochronous (transition) point. In this paper, we discuss space charge effects in the isochronous regime and present experimental results obtained in the Small Isochronous Ring, developed at Michigan State University specifically for studies of space charge in the isochronous regime.

In support of the Large Hadron Collider luminosity upgrade, a large bore (120 mm) Nb{sub 3}Sn quadrupole with 15 T peak coil field is being developed within the framework of the US LHC Accelerator Research Program (LARP). The 2-layer design with a 15 mm wide cable is aimed at pre-stress control, alignment and field quality while exploring the magnet performance limits in terms of gradient, forces and stresses. In addition, HQ will determine the magnetic, mechanical, and thermal margins of Nb{sub 3}Sn technology with respect to the requirements of the luminosity upgrade at the LHC.

Assessments of bentonite barrier performance in waste management scenarios require an accurate description of the diffusion of water and solutes through the barrier. A two-compartment macropore/nanopore model (on which smectite interlayer nanopores are treated as a distinct compartment of the overall pore space) was applied to describe the diffusion of {sup 22}Na{sup +} in compacted, water-saturated Na-bentonites and then compared with the well-known surface diffusion model. The two-compartment model successfully predicted the observed weak ionic strength dependence of the apparent diffusion coefficient (D{sub a}) of Na{sup +}, whereas the surface diffusion model did not, thus confirming previous research indicating the strong influence of interlayer nanopores on the properties of smectite clay barriers. Since bentonite mechanical properties and pore water chemistry have been described successfully with two-compartment models, the results in the present study represent an important contribution toward the construction of a comprehensive two-compartment model of compacted bentonite barriers.