The accuracy of a numerical method for solving the neutron transport equation is limited by the smallest mean free path in the problem. Since problems in the asymptotic diffusive regimes have vanishingly small mean free paths, it seems hopeless, given a limited amount of computer memory, that an accurate solution can be obtained for these problems. However we found that the accuracy of a numerical method improves as the scattering ratio increases with the total cross section and the grid spacing held fixed for problems that are in the asymptotic diffusive regime. This phenomenon is independent of the numerical method and can be explained on physical grounds. The numerical results by the Diamond Difference Method are given to show this phenomenon.

We report the preparation of a novel monolithic SnO{sub 2} aerogel using a straightforward sol-gel technique. TEM and XRD analysis show that the as-prepared material is comprised of interconnected, randomly oriented crystalline (rutile) SnO{sub 2} nanoparticles {approx}3-5 nm in size. As a result, the low-density SnO{sub 2} monolith ({approx}97% porous) exhibits a very high surface area of 383 m{sup 2}/g. /XANES spectroscopy at the Sn M{sub 4,5} edge reveals that the electronic structure of the SnO{sub 2} aerogel is similar to that of tetragonal SnO rather than SnO{sub 2} or {beta}-Sn, and that the undercoordinated surface atoms in the material introduce additional Sn-related electronic states close to the conduction band minimum.

The analyzing power A{sub N} for pp elastic scattering is expected to reach a peak value of 0.045 in the Coulomb Nuclear Interference (CNI) region at a momentum transfer -t of 0.003 (GeV/c){sup 2}. During the 2004 RHIC Run, we completed a measurement of A{sub N} in the CNI region by detecting the recoil protons from pp elastic scattering using a polarized atomic hydrogen gas jet target and the 100 GeV RHIC proton beam. We report the first measurements of the A{sub N} absolute value and shape in the -t range from 0.0015 to 0.010 (GeV/c){sup 2} with a precision better than 0.005 for each A{sub N} data point. The recoil protons were detected with two arrays of Si detectors. The absolute target polarization as monitored by a Breit-Rabi polarimeter was stable at 0.924 {+-} 0.018. This result allows us to further investigate the spin dependence of elastic pp scattering in the very low -t region.

Organic solar cells and LEDs are becoming more popular because their low cost materials, potential manufacturability, and recent gains in efficiency make them feasible for widespread commercialization in the near future. One significant manufacturing problem, especially for OLEDs, is the cost associated with creating patterned devices with spatially non-specific deposition methods such as spincoating. Inkjet printing can remove this problem. In recent years, inkjet printed polyethylene(3,4-dioxythiophene)/ polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT/PSS) has been incorporated into many organic devices to help charge transfer, but there has not been much research regarding the effect of different printing parameters on the electrical and morphological film properties. In this work, an atomic force microscope, four point probe, and Kelvin probe were used to study the effects of printing parameters on roughness, conductivity and workfunction. Inkjet printed PEDOT films were also compared to spincoated films to determine how the polymer deposition method affects the above properties. Generally, inkjet printing created rougher but more conductive films with a smaller workfunction. Additionally, it was demonstrated that the workfunction of PEDOT films could be tuned over a range of about 0.5 V by changing the solvent mixture or substrate surface pretreatment. All additives to the as received PEDOT/PSS suspension caused …

Low-temperature operation requirements for per-fluorinated membranes are one factor that limits the viability of current fuel cell technology for transportation and other uses. Because of this, high-temperature membrane materials are being researched. The protonic conductivity of organic/inorganic hybrid composites, Nafion® analog material, and heteropoly acid doped Nafion membranes were studied using a BekkTech® conductivity test cell as a hydrogen pump. The goal was to find a high-temperature membrane with sufficient enough conductive properties to replace the currently implemented low-temperature membranes, such as Nafion. Four-point conductivity measurements were taken using a hydrogen pump experiment. Results showed that one of the organic/inorganic membranes that we tested had similar protonic conductivity to Nafion. Nafion analog membranes were shown to have similar to slightly better conductivity than Nafion at high-temperatures. However, like Nafion, performance dropped upon dehydration of the membrane at higher temperatures. Of the heteropoly acid doped Nafion membranes studied, silicotungstic acid was found to be, overall, the most promising for use as a dopant.

Insight into microturbulence and transport in tokamak plasmas is being sought using linear simulations of drift waves near the onset time of an internal transport barrier (ITB) on Alcator C-Mod. Microturbulence is likely generated by instabilities of drift waves and causes transport of heat and particles. This transport is studied because the containment of heat and particles is important for the achievement of practical nuclear fusion. We investigate nearness to marginal stability of ion temperature gradient (ITG) modes for conditions in the ITB region at the trigger time for ITB formation. Data from C-Mod, analyzed by TRANSP (a time dependent transport analysis code), is read by the code TRXPL and made into input files for the parallel gyrokinetic model code GS2. Temperature and density gradients in these input files are modified to produce new input files. Results from these simulations show a weak ITG instability in the barrier region at the time of onset, above marginal stability; the normalized critical temperature gradient is 80% of the experimental temperature gradient. The growth rate increases linearly above the critical value, with the spectrum of ITG modes remaining parabolic up to a multiplicative factor of 2. The effect of varying density gradients is …

Biosensing devices are important because they can detect, record, and transmit information regarding the presence of, or physiological changes in, different chemical or biological materials in the environment. The goal of this research is to prepare a biosensing device that is effective, quick, and low cost. This is done by examining which chemicals will work best when placed in a biosensor. The first study involved experimenting on a rhodium catalyst complexed with ligands such as bipyridine and imidazole. The rhodium catalyst is important because it is reduced from RhIII to RhI, forms a hydride by reaction with water and releases the hydride to react with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to selectively produce 1,4-NADH, the reduced form of NAD+. The second study looked at different types of ketones and enzymes for the enzyme-substrate reaction converting a ketone into an alcohol. Preliminary results showed that the rhodium complexed with bipyridine was able to carry out all the reactions, while the rhodium complexed with imidazole was not able to produce and release hydrides. In addition, the most effective ketone to use is benzylacetone with the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase from baker’s yeast. Future work includes experimenting with bis-imidazole, which mimics the structure of bipyridine …

Studies of the spin structure of the neutron are often conducted using a polarized 3He target due to its close spin resemblance to that of a free neutron. Experiments are conducted by bombarding polarized 3He nuclei with high-energy electrons from a linear accelerator. The polarized 3He gas is contained in a glass tube-like cell called the target cell. In addition to the target cell, a reference cell is also used for calibration purposes. The thickness of each cell must be accurately determined for the analysis of the scattering data of the experiment. The thickness of a reference cell was determined by using a tunable infrared laser to create a thin-film interference pattern by reflecting the laser light off of the glass cell. The intensity of the pattern is known to vary sinusoidally as the wavelength of the laser changes. Such variation was recorded as an array of numbers by a LabView program at 26 different points on the cell. Each of the 26 sets of data were fit to an equation containing the thickness variable to determine the thickness of the glass. The cell side, or wall, thickness ranged from 1.42 mm to 1.65 mm, with an uncertainty of less …

A project at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) is currently underway for the building of a new multi-crystal x-ray spectrometer that will be used to probe the fundamental structures of light elements, including water, as well as 3d transition metals, such as metalloproteins, in dilute systems. Experimentation for determining the focal lengths for the prospective high-resolution, spherically-curved silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) analyzers for the instrument and the energy resolutions at their respective focal points is described. The focal lengths of the Si and Ge analyzers being sampled were found by minimizing the focal size made from a diffused helium-neon (HeNe) gas laser operating at 632 nm (0.95 meV). Afterwards, the energy resolutions were determined by using synchrotron radiation (SR), in the range from 6-16 keV energies. The experiments were performed at Beamline 10-2 at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL), a division of SLAC. This data, along with the energies of the incident beams, was used to determine which samples are most effective at focusing x-rays to the highest spatial and energy resolution. Sample Si (440)A, with a focal length of 1015.2 mm, had the best energy resolution. Furthermore, a new multi-crystal goniometer was tested and commissioned. As part …

For many years the power of counting clusters of galaxies as a function of their mass has been recognized as a powerful cosmological probe; however, we are only now beginning to acquire data from dedicated surveys with sufcient sky coverage and sensitivity to measure the cluster population out to distances where the dark energy came to dominate the Universe’s evolution. One such survey uses the XMM X-ray telescope to scan a large area of sky, detecting the X-ray photons from the hot plasma that lies in the deep potential wells of massive clusters of galaxies. These clusters appear as extended (not point-like) objects, each providing just a few hundred photons in a typical observation. The detection of extended sources in such a low signal-to-noise situation is an important problem in astrophysics: we attempt to solve it by using as much prior information as possible, translating our experience with wellmeasured clusters to define a “template” cluster that can be varied and matched to the features seen in the XMM images. In this work we adapt an existing Monte Carlo analysis code for this problem. Two detection templates were dened and their suitability explored using simulated data; the method was then applied …

Energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS) is often the preferred choice for X-ray microanalysis, but there are still many disadvantages associated with EDS, the most significant of which is the relatively poor energy resolution, which limits detection sensitivity and the ability to distinguish among closely spaced spectral features, limiting even qualitative analysis. A new type of EDS detector that operates on the principle of microcalorimetry has the potential to eliminate this shortcoming, reaching resolutions an order of magnitude better. The detector consists of an absorber in thermal contact with a transition edge sensor (TES). An X-ray from the specimen hits the absorber and manifests itself as a change in temperature. Because the system is kept at 80 mK, the heat capacity is low and the temperature spike is observable. The TES responds to the increase in temperature by transitioning from its superconducting to its normal conducting state, thus sharply raising the overall resistance of the circuit. The circuit is kept at a constant voltage, so the increase in resistance is manifested as a decrease in current flow. This decrease in current is measured by a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID), and by integrating the current over time, the energy of the incident X-ray …

The seesaw mechanism that explains the small neutrino masses comes naturally with supersymmetric (SUSY) grand unification and leptogenesis. However, the framework suffers from the SUSY flavor and CP problems, and has a severe cosmological gravitino problem. We propose anomaly mediation as a simple solution to all these problems, which is viable once supplemented by the D-terms for U(1)_Y and U(1)_B-L. Even though the right-handed neutrino mass explicitly breaks U(1)_B-L and hence reintroduces the flavor problem, we show that it lacks the logarithmic enhancement and poses no threat to the framework. The thermal leptogenesis is then made easily consistent with the gravitino constraint.

We count the number of bound states of BPS black holes on local Calabi-Yau three-folds involving a Riemann surface of genus g. We show that the corresponding gauge theory on the brane reduces to a q-deformed Yang-Mills theory on the Riemann surface. Following the recent connection between the black hole entropy and the topological string partition function, we find that for a large black hole charge N, up to corrections of O(e^-N), Z_BH is given as a sum of a square of chiral blocks, each of which corresponds to a specific D-brane amplitude. The leading chiral block, the vacuum block, corresponds to the closed topological string amplitudes. The sub-leading chiral blocks involve topological string amplitudes with D-brane insertions at 2g-2 points on the Riemann surface analogous to the Omega points in the large N 2d Yang-Mills theory. The finite N amplitude provides a non-perturbative definition of topological strings in these backgrounds. This also leads to a novel non-perturbative formulation of c=1 non-critical string at the self-dual radius.

We study conditions for the existence of asymptotic observables in cosmology. With the exception of de Sitter space, the thermal properties of accelerating universes permit arbitrarily long observations, and guarantee the production of accessible states of arbitrarily large entropy. This suggests that some asymptotic observables may exist, despite the presence of an event horizon. Comparison with decelerating universes shows surprising similarities: Neither type suffers from the limitations encountered in de Sitter space, such as thermalization and boundedness of entropy. However, we argue that no realistic cosmology permits the global observations associated with an S-matrix.

We construct the New Minimal Standard Model that incorporates the new discoveries of physics beyond the Minimal Standard Model (MSM): Dark Energy, non-baryonic Dark Matter, neutrino masses, as well as baryon asymmetry and cosmic inflation, adopting the principle of minimal particle content and the most general renormalizable Lagrangian. We base the model purely on empirical facts rather than aesthetics. We need only six new degrees of freedom beyond the MSM. It is free from excessive flavor-changing effects, CP violation, too-rapid proton decay, problems with electroweak precision data, and unwanted cosmological relics. Any model of physics beyond the MSM should be measured against the phenomenological success of this model.

Archaea are found in some of the most extreme environments on earth and represent a third domain of life distinct from Eukarya and Eubacteria. The hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus, isolated from acidic hot springs (80oC, pH 3) in Yellowstone National Park, has emerged as a potential model system for studying human DNA repair processes. Archaea are more closely related to Eukarya than to Eubacteria, suggesting that archaeal DNA repair machinery may model the complex human system much more closely than that of other prokaryotes. DNA repair requires coordinated protein-protein interactions that are frequently transient. Protein complexes that are transient at extreme temperatures where archaea thrive may be more stable at room temperature, allowing for the characterization of otherwise short-lived complexes. However, characterization of these systems in archaea has been limited by the absence of a stable in vivo transformation and expression system. The work presented here is a pilot study in gene cloning and recombinant protein expression in S. solfataricus. Three genes associated with DNA repair were selected for expression: MRE11, PCNA1, and a putative CSB homologue. Though preparation of these recombinant genes followed standard methods, preparation of a suitable vector proved more challenging. The shuttle vector pSSV64, derived from …

This paper presents two new strategies that can be used to greatly improve the speed of connected component labeling algorithms. To assign a label to a new object, most connected component labeling algorithms use a scanning step that examines some of its neighbors. The first strategy exploits the dependencies among them to reduce the number of neighbors examined. When considering 8-connected components in a 2D image, this can reduce the number of neighbors examined from four to one in many cases. The second strategy uses an array to store the equivalence information among the labels. This replaces the pointer based rooted trees used to store the same equivalence information. It reduces the memory required and also produces consecutive final labels. Using an array instead of the pointer based rooted trees speeds up the connected component labeling algorithms by a factor of 5 {approx} 100 in our tests on random binary images.

Although extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography offers the possibility of very high-resolution patterning, the projection optics must be of extremely high quality in order to meet this potential. One key metric of the projection optic quality is the contrast transfer function (CTF), which is a measure of the aerial image contrast as a function of pitch. A static microfield exposure tool based on the 0.3-NA MET optic and operating at a wavelength of 13.5 nm has been installed at the Advanced Light Source, a synchrotron facility at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. This tool provides a platform for a wide variety of research into EUV lithography. In this work we present resist-based measurements of the contrast transfer function for the MET optic. These measurements are based upon line/space patterns printed in several different EUV photoresists. The experimental results are compared with the CTF in aerial-image simulations using the aberrations measured in the projection optic using interferometry. In addition, the CTF measurements are conducted for both bright-field and dark-field mask patterns. Finally, the orientation dependence of the CTF is measured in order to evaluate the effect of non-rotationally symmetric lens aberrations. These measurements provide valuable information in interpreting the results of other …

As a follow up to the initial 1998 intercomparison study, a second study was initiated in 2001 as part of the ongoing evaluation of the capabilities of various ultra-sensitive methods to analyze {sup 239}Pu in urine samples. The initial study was sponsored by the Department of Energy, Office of International Health Programs to evaluate and validate new technologies that may supersede the existing fission tract analysis (FTA) method for the analysis of {sup 239}Pu in urine at the {micro}Bq/l level. The ultra-sensitive techniques evaluated in the second study included accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) by LLNL, thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) by LANL and FTA by the University of Utah. Only the results for the mass spectrometric methods will be presented. For the second study, the testing levels were approximately 4, 9, 29 and 56 {micro}Bq of {sup 239}Pu per liter of synthetic urine. Each test sample also contained {sup 240}Pu at a {sup 240}Pu/{sup 239}Pu atom ratio of {approx}0.15 and natural uranium at a concentration of 50 {micro}Bq/ml. From the results of the two studies, it can be inferred that the best performance at the {micro}Bq level is more laboratory specific than method specific. The second study demonstrated that LANL-TIMS …

An aberration monitoring technique based on lateral shifts of two-wave interference patterns in centrally obscured optical systems is presented, and simulations are used to evaluate the performance of such a technique. The technique is being explored as a convenient means for monitoring the aberration level in the 0.3-NA Micro Exposure Tool (MET) optic over time. A binary mask was designed for observing phase differences across the MET optic on cut-lines at 0, 45, 90 and 135 degrees across the pupil. The mask consists of 5 line-and space patterns in a dark field that measure the side-to-side phase difference across the pupil at 7 equally spaced radial points extending from 35% to 95% of the pupil radius. For near on-axis illumination the blockage of the zero-order creates a two-wave, interferometric pattern at the wafer with half of the period expected under normal imaging conditions. The optical path difference between the two orders produces an image shift of one full period of the (frequency doubled) interference pattern per 360 degrees of side-to-side path difference. Shifts on the order of 5 to 20 nm are expected and are measured using a reference target of an array of 5 medium sized dots. Aerial image …

Deformation behavior of body-centered cubic (BCC) metals is being investigated by white beam x-ray microdiffraction to characterize the dislocation structure that results from uniaxial compression experiments. The measurements were performed on molybdenum single crystals and a tantalum bicrystal as part of a hierarchical characterization effort. Results show heterogeneities in the deformed structure and misorientation maps consistent with results obtained from Orientation Imaging Microscopy (OIM). Additionally, the technique allows for the determination of the active glide systems as well as of the dislocation densities in function of the position in the sample.

Supernovae launch spherical shocks into the circumstellar medium (CSM). These shocks may interact with both the intergalactic magnetic field (IGM) and local mass accumulations (possibly with their own local magnetic fields). The latter interaction may trigger star formation. The shocks have high Mach numbers and may be radiative. We have created similar shocks in the laboratory by focusing laser pulses onto the tip of a solid pin surrounded by ambient gas; ablated material from the pin rapidly expands and launches a shock through the surrounding gas. The shock may then be allowed to interact with (a) mass accumulations, (b) magnetic fields, or (c) allowed to expand freely. We will present examples of each type of experiment, but mainly discuss a new phenomena observed first in (c); at the edge of the radiatively heated gas ahead of the shock, a second shock forms. The two expanding shocks are simultaneously visible for a time, until the original shock stalls from running into the heated gas. The second shock remains visible and continues to expand. A minimum condition for the formation of the second shock is that the original shock is super-critical, i.e., the temperature distribution ahead of the original shock has an …

This paper describes the development of an alternative technology for storing hydrogen fuel onboard automobiles. Insulated pressure vessels are cryogenic-capable pressure vessels that can accept cryogenic liquid fuel, cryogenic compressed gas or compressed gas at ambient temperature. Insulated pressure vessels offer advantages over conventional H{sub 2} storage approaches. Insulated pressure vessels are more compact and require less carbon fiber than GH{sub 2} vessels. They have lower evaporative losses than LH{sub 2} tanks, and are much lighter than metal hydrides. After outlining the advantages of hydrogen fuel and insulated pressure vessels, the paper describes the experimental and analytical work conducted to verify that insulated pressure vessels can be used safely for vehicular H{sub 2} storage. The paper describes tests that have been conducted to evaluate the safety of insulated pressure vessels. Insulated pressure vessels have successfully completed a series of DOT, ISO and SAE certification tests. A draft procedure for insulated pressure vessel certification has been generated to assist in a future commercialization of this technology. An insulated pressure vessel has been installed in a hydrogen fueled truck and it is currently being subjected to extensive testing.

Chemically amplified resists depend upon the post-exposure bake (PEB) process to drive the deprotection reactions (in positive resists) that lead to proper resist development. For this reason they often exhibit critical dimension (CD) sensitivity to PEB temperature variation. In this work the effects of variation in different aspects of the PEB step on post-develop CD are studied for two extreme ultraviolet (EUV) photoresists. The spatial and temporal temperature uniformity of the PEB plate is measured using a wireless sensor wafer. Programmed variations in the bake plate temperature set point are then used to measure the CD sensitivity to steady state temperature variation. In addition, the initial temperature ramp time is modified using a thin sheet of polyimide film between the wafer and the bake plate. This allows for measurement of the CD sensitivity to transient temperature variation. Finally, the bake time is adjusted to measure the CD sensitivity to this parameter.