Deposition on indoor surfaces is an important removal mechanism for tobacco smoke particles. We report measurements of deposition rates of environmental tobacco smoke particles in a room-size chamber. The deposition rates were determined from the changes in measured concentrations by correcting for the effects of coagulation and ventilation. The air flow turbulent intensity parameter was determined independently by measuring the air velocities in the chamber. Particles with diameters smaller than 0.25 {micro}m coagulate to form larger particles of sizes between 0.25-0.5 {micro}m. The effect of coagulation on the particles larger than 0.5 {micro}m was found to be negligible. Comparison between our measurements and calculations using Crump and Seinfeld's theory showed smaller measured deposition rates for particles from 0.1 to 0.3 {micro}m in diameter and greater measured deposition rates for particles larger than 0.6 {micro}m at three mixing intensities. Comparison of Nazaroff and Cass model for natural convection flow showed good agreement with the measurements for particles larger than 0.1 {micro}m in diameter, however, measured deposition rates exceeded model prediction by a factor of approximately four for particles in size range 0.05-0.1 {micro}m diameter. These results were used to predict deposition of sidestream smoke particles on interior surfaces. Calculations predict that …

The testing of candidate fuel elements at prototypic operating conditions with respect to temperature, power density, hydrogen coolant flow rate, etc., a crucial component in the development and qualification of nuclear rocket engines based on the Particle Bed Reactor (PBR), NERVA-derivative, and other concepts. Such testing may be performed at existing reactors, or at new facilities. A scoping study has been performed to assess the feasibility of testing PBR based fuel elements at the TREAT reactor. initial results suggest that full-scale PBR, elements could be tested at an average energy deposition of {approximately}60--80 MW-s/L in the current TREAT reactor. If the TREAT reactor was upgraded to include fuel elements with a higher temperature limit, average energy deposition of {approximately}100 MW/L may be achievable.

Temperatures as low as 42 C, maintained for a little as 25 minutes, inactivate {approx}25% of HIV. Furthermore, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected T-cells are more sensitive to heat than healthy lymphocytes and susceptibility increases when the cells are pre-sensitized by exposure to tumor necrosis factor. Thus, induction of a whole-body hyperthermia, or hyperthermia specifically limited to tissues having a high viral load, are potential antiviral therapies for acquired immunodeficiency disease (AIDS). Accordingly, we incorporated therapeutic hyperthermia into an existing mathematical model which evaluates the interaction between HIV and CD4{sup +} T cells. Given the assumptions and limitations of this model, the results indicate that a daily therapy, reducing the population of actively infected cells by 40% or infectious virus by 50%, would effectively reverse the depletion of T cells. In contrast, a daily reduction of 20% of either actively infected cells or infectious virus would have a marginal effect. However, reduction by 20% of both actively infected cells and infectious virus could restore T cell numbers, assuming that permanent damage had not been inflicted on the thymus. Whole-body hyperthermia seems unlikely to be clinically useful, unless it can be induced non-invasively without general anesthesia. In contrast, heating directed specifically to …

A kind of microwave power source, called a free-electron laser afterburner (FEL afterburner) which consists of a free-electron laser buncher and a slow-wave output structure sharing a magnetic wiggler field with the buncher, is proposed. The buncher and the slow-wave structure can operate in either a travelling-wave state or a standing-wave state. In the buncher, the wiggler field together with the radiation field makes an electron beam bunched, and in the slow-wave structure the wiggler field keeps the beam bunched while the bunched beam interacts strongly with the slow-wave structure and so produces rf power. The bunching process comes from the free-electron laser mechanism and the generating process of rf power is in a slow-wave structure. A three-dimensional, time-dependent code is used to simulate a particular standing-wave FEL afterburner and it is shown that rf power of up to 1.57 GW can be obtained, at 17.12 GHz, from a l-kA, 5-MeV electron beam.

The Geysers geothermal field is located in northern California and is one of the world's largest producers of electricity from geothermal energy. The resource consists of primarily dry steam which is produced from a low, porosity fractured graywacke. Over the last several years steam pressure at the Geysers has been dropping. Concern over decline of the resource has prompted research to understand its fundamental nature. A key issue is the distribution of fluid in the matrix of the reservoir rock. In this paper we interpret seismic compressional-wave velocity and attenuation data at the Geysers in terms of the geologic structure and fluid saturation in the reservoir. Our data consist of approximately 300 earthquakes that are of magnitude 1.2 and are distributed in depth between sea level and 2.5 km. Using compressional-wave arrival times, we invert for earthquake location, origin time, and velocity along a three-dimensional grid. Using the initial pulse width of the compressional-wave, we invert for the initial pulse width associated with the source, and the one-dimensional Q structure. We find that the velocity structure correlates with known mapped geologic units, including a velocity high that is correlated with a felsite body at depth that is known from drilling. …

A subslab aggregate layer can increase the radon entry rate into a building by up to a factor of 5. We use a previously tested numerical technique to investigate and confirm this phenomenon. Then we demonstrate that a sub-aggregate membrane has the potential to significantly reduce the increase in radon entry rate due to the aggregate layer, even when a gap exists between the perimeter of the membrane and the footer. Such membranes greatly reduce diffusion of radon from the soil into the aggregate and are impermeable to flow. Radon entry through the basement floor slab is limited to radon entry through the holes in the membrane. In addition, a sub-aggregate membrane is predicted to improve the performance of active sub-slab ventilation systems and makes passive systems more promising.

A higher penetration of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) for household lighting can reduce growth in peak electricity demand, reduce sales of subsidized electricity, and lessen environmental impacts. This paper describes an economic analysis of a project designed to promote high penetration rates of CFLs in two cities in Mexico. Our analysis indicates that the project will bring substantial net economic benefits to Mexico, the utility, and the average customer. In the absence of any subsidy to CFLs, most customers will see a payback period longer than two years. By sharing some of the anticipated net benefit, CFE, the utility company, can reduce the payback period to a maximum of two years for all customers. CFE's role is thus crucial to the successful implementation of the project. Expanding the Ilumex project to a Mexico-wide program would make a significant contribution towards meeting the planned addition of generation capacity by the year 2000.

The distribution of population exposures to radon, rather than the distribution of indoor radon concentrations, determines the fraction of population exposed to exceptionally high risk from radon exposures. Since this fraction at high risk has prompted the development of public policies on radon, it is important to first determine the magnitude of this fraction, and then how it much would decrease with different implementation program options for radon mitigation. This papers presents an approach to determining the distribution of population exposures to radon from public domain data, and illustrates it with application to the state of Minnesota. During this work, we are led to define a radon entry potential index which appears useful in the search for regions with high radon houses.

A simple model is proposed to account for observed emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from new carpets. The model assumes that the VOCs originate predominantly in a uniform slab of polymer backing material. Parameters for the model (the initial concentration of a VOC in the polymer, a diffusion coefficient and an equilibrium polymer/air partition coefficient) are obtained from experimental data produced by a previous chamber study. The diffusion coefficients generally decrease as the molecular weight of the VOCs increase, while the polymer/air partition coefficients generally increase as the vapor pressure of the compounds decrease. In addition, for two of the study carpets that have a styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) backing, the diffusion and partition coefficients are similar to independently reported values for SBR. The results suggest that predictions of VOCs emissions from new carpets may be possible based solely on a knowledge of the physical properties of the relevant compounds and the carpet backing material. However, a more rigorous validation of the model is desirable.

Radiation therapy with hadron beams now has a 40-year track record at many accelerator laboratories around the world, essentially all of these originally physics-research oriented. The great promise shown for treating cancer has led the medical community to seek dedicated accelerator facilities in a hospital setting, where more rapid progress can be made in clinical research. This paper will discuss accelerator and beam characteristics relevant to hadron therapy, particularly as applied to hospital-based facilities. A survey of currently-operating and planned hadron therapy facilities will be given, with particular emphasis on Lorna Linda (the first dedicated proton facility in a hospital) and HIMAC (the first dedicated heavy-ion medical facility).

A beamline has been designed and assembled to use the ANL Chemistry Division 20-MeV electron linac for the testing of higher-order mode excitation and damping in rf cavities. The beamline consists of two sections (a beam collimating section with a 1.5 inches-OD vacuum line, and a cavity test section with a 3 inches-OD vacuum line), separated by two double aluminum foil windows. The beam diagnostics consist of a stripline beam position monitor, integrating current transformers, fluorescent screens, and a Faraday cup. EPICS (Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System) is used for beamline control, monitoring, and data acquisition. Also described is the diagnostic system used for beam image capture and analysis using EPICS-controlled hardware and PV-WAVE software. The rf cavity measurement will be described in a separate paper.

The performance of Free-Electron Lasers depends critically on the quality of the alignment of the electron beam to the wiggler's magnetic axis and the deviation of this axis from a straight fine. The measurement of the electron beam position requires numerous beam position monitors in the wiggler, where space is at premium. The beam position measurement is used to set beam steerers for an orbit correction in the wiggler. The authors propose an alternative high precision alignment method in which one or two external Beam Position Monitors (BPM) are used. In this technique, the field in the electro-wiggler is modulated section by section and the beam position movement at the external BPM is detected in synchronism with the modulation. A beam offset at the modulated beam section will produce a modulation of the beam position at the detector that is a function of the of the beam offset and the absolute value of the modulation current. The wiggler errors produce a modulation that is a function of the modulation current. It will be shown that this method allows the detection and correction of the beam position at each section in the presence of wiggler errors with a good resolution. Furthermore, …

Monte Carlo simulations were performed with a lattice gas model which represents the interactions between oxygen atoms in YBa[sub 2](Cu[sub 1-x]M[sub x])[sub 3]O[sub 7+[delta]] (M=Fe, Co, or Al, 0.03< [times] <0.l) system. The amplitudes of concentration waves/displacement waves obtained from these simulations then were used to calculate the intensity of the diffuse scattering of tweed seen in the electron diffraction pattern. The characteristic features of the tweed image were produced by calculation, using a model based on the contrast originating from structures with displacive modulation, stacking on the top of each other. Both calculations agree well with the TEM observations and provide an useful basis for a better insight into the origin of the tweed structure.

Suprathermal electrons are diagnosed by a hard x-ray pinhole camera during lower hybrid current drive on PBX-M. The experimental hard x-ray images are compared with simulated images, which result from an integration of the relativistic bremsstrahlung along lines-of-sight through the bean-shaped plasma. Images with centrally peaked and radially hollow radiation profiles are easily distinguished. The energy distribution of the suprathermal electrons is analyzed by comparing images taken with different absorber foils. An effective photon temperature is derived from the experimental images, and a comparison with simulated photon temperatures yields the energy of the suprathermal electrons. The analysis indicates that the energy of the suprathermal electrons in the hollow discharges is in the 50 to 100 key range in the center of the discharge. There seems to exist a very small higher energy component close to the plasma edge.

Transmission electron microscopy is applied to investigate the effect of postannealing on misfit dislocations in an In[sup 0.2]Ga[sup 0.8]As/GaAs(001) heterostructure. An orthogonal array of 60[degree] dislocations along [110] and [110] directions was observed in the interfaces of the samples grown by MBE at 520C. When the as-grown samples were annealed at temperatures ranging from 600 to 800C, the 60[degree] dislocations were gradually reoriented by dislocation reactions occurring at the 90[degree] intersections followed by nonconservative motion driven by dislocation line tension and the residual elastic misfit strain. The final result of this process was a dislocation array lying along [100] and [center dot] [010] directions. The reoriented u =<100> dislocation has a Burgers vector b = a/2 <101>, which is the same as that of 60[degree] dislocation, but the edge component of its Burgers vector in the (001) interfacial plane is larger than that of 60[degree] dislocation by a factor of [radical]2, resulting in a greater contribution to elastic strain relaxation. This nonconservative reorientation of 60[degree] dislocations to form the u=<100> dislocations represents a new strain relaxation mechanism in diamond or zinc blende semiconductor heterostructures.

We present an example of the science that is enabled by object-oriented programming techniques. Scientific computation often needs derivatives for solving nonlinear systems such as those arising in many PDE algorithms, optimization, parameter identification, stiff ordinary differential equations, or sensitivity analysis. Automatic differentiation computes derivatives accurately and efficiently by applying the chain rule to each arithmetic operation or elementary function. Operator overloading enables the techniques of either the forward or the reverse mode of automatic differentiation to be applied to real-world scientific problems. We illustrate automatic differentiation with an example drawn from a model of unsaturated flow in a porous medium. The problem arises from planning for the long-term storage of radioactive waste.

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An improved, explosively actuated closing switch has been developed for the Pegasus II capacitor bank. The new switch design uses an annular metal jet as the switch contact. It has lower resistance and inductance at early time than the original design. A parallel array of 24 switches on Pegasus II has a resistance of less than 10 [mu][Omega] after 300 ns. Measured time behaviors include an intrinsic jitter of 50 ns and a switching delay that depends inversely on the applied voltage.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) develops radiation calibration standards through Subcommittee 2 (titled Radiation Protection'') of Technical Committee 85 (ISO/TC85/SC2). The subcommittee has also developed standards providing guidance on the performance of measurements. ISO/TC85/SC2 consists of international technical experts who represent their countries through the international consensus process in providing guidance in several radiation protection areas. The purpose of this paper is to summarize ISO's is guidance provided in the area of contamination measurements.

An important body of test and performance data on the behavior of piping systems has led to an ongoing reassessment of the code stress allowables and their safety margin. The codes stress allowables, and their factors of safety, are developed from limits on the incipient yield (for ductile materials), or incipient rupture (for brittle materials), of a test specimen loaded in simple tension. In this paper, we examine the failure theories introduced in the B31 and ASME III codes for piping and their inherent approximations compared to textbook failure theories. We summarize the evolution of factors of safety in ASME and B31 and point out that, for piping systems, it is appropriate to reconsider the concept and definition of factors of safety.

This paper focuses on novel, innovative approaches for reducing or delaying the production of photochemical smog in the Los Angeles Basin. These approaches include modifying the surface characteristics of the basin by increasing surface albedo and an extensive tree-planting program. The changes in surface conditions are designed to reduce the basin air temperatures, especially during the summer months, which will result in two possible effects. First, a decrease in temperature would lead to a reduction in energy use with an associated decline in emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO[sub x]) and a lowering of evaporative emission of reactive organic gases. Reductions in these smog precursors could improve the air quality of the basin without imposing additional emissions regulations. The second effect is associated with the possible causal relationship between air temperature and smog formation (i.e., lower temperatures and lower incidence of smog). Since this approach to mitigating air emissions is broad, the studies to date have concentrated on how changes in surface characteristics affect the meteorological conditions of the basin and on how these meteorological changes subsequently affect smog production. A geographic information system database of key surface characteristics (i.e., vegetative cover, albedo, moisture availability, and roughness) was compiled, and these …

Space is an Application Visualization System (AVS) graphics module designed for crystallographic and molecular research. The program can handle molecules, two-dimensional periodic systems, and three-dimensional periodic systems, all referred to in the paper as models. Using several methods, the user can select atoms, groups of atoms, or entire molecules. Selections can be moved, copied, deleted, and merged. An important feature of Space is the crystallography component. The program allows the user to generate the unit cell from the asymmetric unit, manipulate the unit cell, and replicate it in three dimensions. Space includes the Buerger reduction algorithm which determines the asymmetric unit and the space group of highest symmetry of an input unit cell. Space also allows the user to display planes in the lattice based on Miller indices, and to cleave the crystal to expose the surface. The user can display important precalculated volumetric data in Space, such as electron densities and electrostatic surfaces. With a variety of methods, Space can compute the electrostatic potential of any chemical system based on input point charges.

Assumptions about the economics of making a system safe are usually not explicitly stated in industrial and software models of safety-critical systems. These assumptions span a wide spectrum of economic tradeoffs with respect to resources expended to make a system safe. The missing component in these models that is necessary for capturing the effect of economic tradeoffs is risk. A qualitative risk-based software safety model is proposed that combines features of industrial and software systems safety models. The risk-based model provides decision makers with a basis for performing cost-benefit analyses of software safety-related activities.

Plate-fin heat exchangers are being considered for many condenser applications. They are commonly used for the gas-separation process because they can provide a high thermal performance to obtain a low mean-temperature difference, essential for the gas-separation process. Plate-fin heat exchangers are also considered for the heat-pump system using nonazeotropic refrigerant mixtures. The brazed plate-fin condenser was considered to be a leading candidate for the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) system, where high-performance heat exchangers are essential for maintaining a low mean-temperature difference. Calculation of the fin efficiency is difficult for condensation in the presence of noncondensable gases due to the spatial variation of the interfacial temperature. An analysis was carried out to develop a simplified method to calculate the fin efficiency for condensation of a vapor in the presence of noncondensable gases. The analysis includes the variation in the interfacial temperature along the fin surface. Appropriate assumptions are made to simplify the coupled heat-conduction equation in the fin and the heat/mass fluxes at the interface. The resulting expression for the fin efficiency includes mass-flux parameters, and it is similar to the common expression used for single-phase flow.