A computational chemistry analysis combined with a crystallographic database study of the bonding in late transition metal N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes is reported. The results illustrate a metal-carbon bond for these complexes, approximately 4% shorter than that of a M-C single bond found in metal alkyl complexes. As a consequence of this result, two hypotheses are investigated. The first hypothesis explores the possibility of multiple-bond character in the metal-carbon linkage of the NHC complex, and the second, considers the change in the hybridization of the carbenoid carbon to incorporate more p character. The latter hypothesis is supported by the results. Analysis of these complexes using the natural bond orbital method evinces NHC ligands possessing trans influence.

This dissertation focuses on the chemistry, detection, and control of metals and metal contaminants during manufacturing of integrated circuits (ICs) on silicon wafers. Chapter 1 begins with an overview of IC manufacturing, including discussion of the common aqueous cleaning solutions, metallization processes, and analytical techniques that will be investigated in subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 covers initial investigations into the chemistry of the SC2 clean - a mixture of HCl, H2O2, and DI water - especially on the behavior of H2O2 in this solution and the impact of HCl concentration on metal removal from particle addition to silicon oxide surfaces. Chapter 3 includes a more generalized investigation of the chemistry of metal ions in solution and how they react with the silicon oxide surfaces they are brought into contact with, concluding with illumination of the fundamental chemical principles that govern their behavior. Chapter 4 shows how metal contaminants behave on silicon wafers when subjected to the high temperature (≥ 800 °C) thermal cycles that are encountered in IC manufacturing. It demonstrates that knowledge of some fundamental thermodynamic properties of the metals allow accurate prediction of what will happen to a metal during these processes. Chapter 5 covers a very different but …

The electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) has been proven an effective mean of monitoring up to nano-scale mass changes related to electrode potential variations at its surface. The principles of operation are based on the converse piezoelectric response of quartz crystals to mass variations on the crystal surface. In this work, principles and operations of the EQCM and piezo-electrodes are discussed. A conductive oxide, ruthenium oxide (RuO2) is a promising material to be used as a diffusion barrier for metal interconnects. Characterization of copper underpotential deposition (UPD) on ruthenium and RuO2 electrodes by means of electrochemical methods and other spectroscopic methods is presented. Copper electrodeposition in platinum and ruthenium substrates is investigated at pH values higher than zero. In pH=5 solutions, the rise in local pH caused by the reduction of oxygen leads to the formation of a precipitate, characterized as posnjakite or basic copper sulfate by means of X-ray electron spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. The mechanism of formation is studied by means of the EQCM, presenting this technique as a powerful in-situ sensing device.

The integration of copper (Cu) and dielectric materials has been outlined in the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) as a critical goal for future microelectronic devices. A necessity toward achieving this goal is the development of diffusion barriers that resolve the Cu and dielectric incompatibility. The focus of this research examines the potential use of tungsten nitride as a diffusion barrier by characterizing the interfacial properties with Cu and evaluating its process capability for industrial use. Tungsten nitride (β-W2N) development has been carried out using a plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) technique that utilizes tungsten hexafluoride (WF6), nitrogen (N2), hydrogen (H2), and argon (Ar). Two design of experiments (DOE) were performed to optimize the process with respect to film stoichiometry, resistivity and uniformity across a 200 mm diameter Si wafer. Auger depth profiling showed a 2:1 W:N ratio. X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed a broad peak centered on the β-W2N phase. Film resistivity was 270 mohm-cm and film uniformity < 3 %. The step coverage (film thickness variance) across a structured etched dielectric (SiO2, 0.35 mm, 3:1 aspect ratio) was > 44 %. Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) measurements showed good barrier performance for W2N between Cu and SiO2 …

Metal oxide reactions at metal oxide surfaces or at metal-metal oxide interfaces are of exceptional significance in areas such as catalysis, micro- and nanoelectronics, chemical sensors, and catalysis. Such reactions are frequently complicated by the presence of high electric fields and/or H2O-containing environments. The focus of this research was to understand (1) the iron oxide growth mechanism on Fe(111) at 300 K and 500 K together with the effect of high electric fields on these iron oxide films, and (2) the growth of alumina films on two faces of Ni3Al single crystal and the interaction of the resulting films with water vapor under non-UHV conditions. These studies were conducted with AES, LEED, and STM. XPS was also employed in the second study. Oxidation of Fe(111) at 300 K resulted in the formation of Fe2O3 and Fe3O4. The substrate is uniformly covered with an oxide film with relatively small oxide islands, i.e. 5-15 nm in width. At 500 K, Fe3O4 is the predominant oxide phase formed, and the growth of oxide is not uniform, but occurs as large islands (100 - 300 nm in width) interspersed with patches of uncovered substrate. Under the stress of STM induced high electric fields, dielectric …

Density functional theory has been used in combination with the correlation consistent and polarization consistent basis sets to investigate the structures and energetics for a series of first-row closed shell and several second-row molecules of potential importance in atmospheric chemistry. The impact of basis set choice upon molecular description has been examined, and irregular convergence of molecular properties with respect to increasing basis set size for several functionals and molecules has been observed. The possible reasons and solutions for this unexpected behavior including the effect of contraction and uncontraction, of the basis set diffuse sp basis functions, basis set superposition error (BSSE) and core-valence sets also have been examined.

As a very promising material of copper diffusion barrier for next generation microelectronics, Ru has already obtained a considerable attention recently. In this dissertation, we investigated ruthenium and ruthenium oxide electrochemical properties and the application as a copper diffusion barrier. Cu under potential deposition (UPD) on the RuOx formed electrochemically was first observed. Strong binding interaction, manifesting by the observed Cu UPD process, exists between Cu and Ru as well as its conductive ruthenium oxide. Since UPD can be conformally formed on the electrode surface, which enable Ru and RuOx has a potential application in the next generation anode. The [Cl-] and pH dependent experiment were conducted, both of them will affect UPD Cu on Ru oxide. We also found the Cu deposition is thermodynamically favored on RuOx formed electrochemically. We have studied the Ru thin film (5nm) as a copper diffusion barrier. It can successfully block Cu diffusion annealed at 300 oC for 10min under vacuum, and fail at 450 oC. We think the silicidation process at the interface between Ru and Si. PVD Cu/Ru/Si and ECP Cu/Ru/Si were compared each other during copper diffusion study. It was observed that ECP Cu is easy to diffuse through Ru barrier. …

Treatment of 4,5 bis-(diphenylphosphino)-cyclopenten-1,3 dione with thiophene carboxyaldehyde in dichloromethane, in the presence of molecular sieves results in a new heterocyclic compound, 2-(2-thienylidene)-4,5-bis(diphenylphosphino)-4-cyclopenten-1,3-dione (ligand), with a high yield. This product was characterized by using both IR and NMR spectroscopic techniques and the solid-state structure of the ligand was determined using X-ray crystallography. When the ligand was treated with the solvent stabilized intermediate of ReBr(CO)5 with THF, a monomeric metal complex, fac-BrRe(CO)3[2-(2-thienylidene)-4,5-bis(diphenylphosphino)-4-cyclopenten-1,3-dione] was the result. The solid-state structure of the monomeric metal complex was determined using X-ray crystallography. Photolysis and thermolysis studies of the complex will be further explored.

A 13C and 6Li variable temperature NMR study of 2-ethylbutyllithium/lithium 2-ethyl-1-butoxide mixed aggregates formed from reacting 2-ethyl-1-butanol with 2-ethylbutyllithium in two O/Li ratios of 0.2/1 and 0.8/1. The 0.2/1 sample resulted in two 2-ethylbutyllithium/lithium 2-ethyl-1-butoxide mixed aggregates and seven lithium hydride/lithium 2-ethyl-1-butoxide mixed aggregates. The lithium hydride mixed aggregates were also studied using selective 1H decoupling experiments. The 0.8/1 sample resulted in six 2-ethylbutyllithium/lithium 2-ethyl-1-butoxide mixed aggregates and five lithium hydride/lithium 2-ethyl-1-butoxide mixed aggregates. A low temperature 13C NMR spectroscopy study of n-pentyllithium indicated three aggregates, most likely a hexamer, an octamer, and a nonamer. A low temperature 13C NMR study of an 0.2/1 O/Li ratio sample of n-pentyllithium mixed with 1-pentanol resulted in three n-pentyllithium/lithium n-pentoxide aggregates mixed aggregates along with the three n-pentyllithium aggregates. 13C NMR data for this mixture gave inconclusive results whether or not lithium hydride/lithium alkoxide mixed aggregates were present in the sample.

An iodine surface layer has been prepared on Ru(poly) and Ru(0001) electrodes by exposure to iodine vapor in UHV and polarizing in a 0.1 M HClO4/0.005 M KI solution, respectively. A saturation coverage of I on a Ru(poly) electrode passivates the Ru surface against significant hydroxide, chemisorbed oxygen or oxide formation during exposure to water vapor over an electrochemical cell in a UHV-electrochemistry transfer system. Immersion of I-Ru(poly) results in greater hydroxide and chemisorbed oxygen formation than water vapor exposure, but an inhibition of surface oxide formation relative that of the unmodified Ru(poly) surface is still observed. Studies with combined electrochemical and XPS techniques show that the iodine surface adlayer remained on top of the surface after cycles of overpotential electrodeposition/dissolution of copper on both Ru(poly) and Ru(0001) electrodes. These results indicate the potential bifunctionality of iodine layer to both passivate the Ru surface in the microelectronic processing and to act as a surfactant for copper electrodeposition. The electrodeposition of Cu on Ru(0001) or polycrystalline Ru was studied using XPS with combined ultrahigh vacuum/electrochemistry methodology (UHV-EC) in 0.1 M HClO4 with Cu(ClO4)2 concentrations ranging from 0.005 M to 0.0005 M, and on polycrystalline Ru in a 0.05M H2SO4/0.005 M CuSO4/0.001 …

Adherent Cu films were electrodeposited onto polycrystalline W foils from purged solutions of 0.05 M CuSO4 in H2SO4 supporting electrolyte and 0.025 M CuCO3∙Cu(OH)2 in 0.32 M H3BO3 and corresponding HBF4 supporting electrolyte, both at pH = 1. Films were deposited under constant potential conditions at voltages between -0.6 V and -0.2 V versus Ag/AgCl. All films produced by pulses of 10 s duration were visible to the eye, copper colored, and survived a crude test called "the Scotch tape test", which involves sticking the scotch tape on the sample, then peeling off the tape and observing if the copper film peels off or not. Characterization by scanning electron microscopy (SEM)/energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) and X-ray photon spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed the presence of metallic Cu, with apparent dendritic growth. No sulfur impurity was observable by XPS or EDX. Kinetics measurements indicated that the Cu nucleation process in the sulfuric bath is slower than in the borate bath. In both baths, nucleation kinetics does not correspond to either instantaneous or progressive nucleation. Films deposited from 0.05 M CuSO4/H2SO4 solution at pH > 1 at -0.2 V exhibited poor adhesion and decreased Cu reduction current. In both borate and sulfate baths, small …