Five new gas geothermometers are introduced. They are useful for predicting subsurface temperatures in water dominated geothermal systems. The geothermometers use data on CO{sub 2}, H{sub 2}S and H{sub 2} concentrations in fumarole steam as well as CO{sub 2}/H{sub 2} and H{sub 2}S/H{sub 2} ratios. It is demonstrated that the gas composition of fumarole steam may be used with or withour drillhole data to evaluate steam condensation in the upflow zones of geothermal systems. Uncertainty exists, however, in distinguishing between the effects of steam condensation and phase separation at elevated pressures. The gas content in steam from discharging wells and the solute content of the water phase can be used to evaluate which boiling processes lead to "excess steam" in the discharge and at which temperature this "excess steam" is added to the fluid moving through the aquifer and into the well. Examples, using field data, are given to demonstrate all the mentioned applications of geothermal chemistry.

In geothermal wells injection tests are commonly used to obtain well and reservoir data. These tests are typically conducted in a series of step rates followed or preceded by a complete shutin. Usually the temperature of the injected fluid is different from that of the reservoir fluid. Because of the strong temperature dependence of fluid viscosity and to a lesser extent, fluid density, nonisothermally related pressure responses must be considered. The nonisothermal isjectivity index obtained from these tests depends on the mobility ratio of the cold region to the hot reservoir and the extent of the cold spot. This paper proposes a method which accounts for these effects and relates the nonisothermal injectivity index to the isothermal injectivity index.

The development of reliable spinner tools may help avoid much of the ambiquity which often accompanies well tests in geothermal wells, due to interlayer flows through the well bore. However, the use of both pressure and flow rate changes requires new methods of well test interpretation. The Stanford Geothermal Program has been developing microcomputer-based techniques for the simultaneous analysis of pressure and flow rate measurements. There are two key steps in the procedure. Firstly, the non-linear regression is achieved by calculating the gradients of the response (with respect to the unknown reservoir parameters) in Laplace space, and inverting numerically. Secondly, the variable flow rate is represented in terms of a superposition of many step changes - this was found to work better than a spline fit to the data. One problem was encountered when attempting to analyze data in which the spinner "stalled", causing a jump to zero flow rate. The method shows great promise in that the degrees of freedom on the interpretation are greatly reduced, the well bore storage effect disappears, and inter-feed flows do not affect the results.

The present situation of the geothermal field developments in Japan is such that eight geothermal power stations are being operated, while there are sill many geothermal areas to be explored. Up to this day, the target of geothermal exploration has mainly been the areas by surface geological survey and the existing geothermal reservoirs are located not deeper than 1,500m depth. Recent geothermal energy development shows a trend from the study on vapor dominated of liquid dominated hydrothermal resources in shallow zones to that on hydrothermal resources in deeper zones. Exploration wells of 3,000m depth class have been drilled in Japan.

Achievements and problem areas are reviewed with respect to various engineering implications of geothermal field development in the European Community (EC). Current and furture development goals address three resource settings. (a) low enthalpy sources (30-150{degrees}C), an outlook common to all Member states as a result of hot water aquifers flowing in large sedimentary units with normal heat flow, widespread thoughout the EC; (b) high enthalpy sources (<150{degrees}C) in areas of high heat flow which, as a consequence of the geodynamics of the Eurasian plate, are limited to Central and South-West Italy and to Eastern Greece; (c) hot dry rocks (HDR), whose potential for Europe, and also the difficulties in implementing the heat mining concept, are enormous. A large scale experiment conducted at medium depth in Cornwall (UK) proves encouraging though. It has provided the right sort of scientific inputs to the understanding of the mechanics of anisotropic brittle basement rocks.

A surface electrical potential system was fielded during the chemical stimulation of the Rossi 21-19 well in the Beowawe Geothermal Field. The technique, which measures variations in resistivity resulting from the flow of conductive fluid into the reservoir, was not only shown to be highly sensitive, not only to the chemical treatment, but also to the in situ conductive zones before any acid injection. A review of the experiment and a preliminary interpretation of the data are presented. The data provide convincing evidence that it should be possible to map the treated zone as well as the primary pretreatment in situ conductive zones.

The present exploitation conditions of the Ahuachapan field are discussed. The high well density in a small area has resulted in a significant reservoir pressure decrease due to the inherent reservoir over-exploitation. The average pressure in the exploitation zone has decreased from the 1975 value of 34 kg/cm{sup 2} to the May 1983 value of 23 kg/cm{sup 2}. The production decline characteristics of the Ahuachapan wells were examined, concluding that all wells but Ah-22 show exponential decline. The cumulative production-reinjection for the field up to April 1983 is 159.090 x 10{sup 6} tons, and 37.592 x 10{sup 6} tons, respectively. The effect of reinjection upon field behavior is evident when observing the pressure decline characteristics of the field. It is seen that for indection fraction related to total mass extracted above 30 percent, the average decline pressure in the production area becomes approximately stabilized. If this condition is not met the reservoir pressure decreases sharply. From this finding it is concluded that a careful and properly planned reinjection program is a must for the field. The observed temperature reduction in some of the wells seems to be the result of two operating mechanisms. First, we have the pressure decline that …

Geothermal wells discharging hundreds of tons/hour of steam-water mixtures may be supplied at depth from one very narrow crack of width 1 to 2 mm, or alternatively, from some hundreds of hairline cracks. In the former case, turbulent flow takes place out to tens of meters from the well while the sum of frictional and kinetic pressure-drop indicates the flashing distance to be of the order of 10 cm from the well wall for pressure-temperature equilibrium. However it is unlikely that equilibrium obtains because of the high water velocity (order of 100 m/s) near the well giving no time for bubble nucleation. Flashing and hence mineral deposition are therefore not at all likely in the crack but can occur within the well from the crack horizon upwards. In the case of a multitude of fine cracks giving the same total flow, streamline conditions prevail over the flow path with the flash front a meter or so from the well, hence deposition is a possibility.

A freshly flashed geothermal liquid, previously dosed with inhibitor and super-saturated with calcite was injected into another well where it displaced an unflashed counterpart of itself around the wellbore. Back-production of the injectate, and subsequently the native fluid, has yielded data for the rate that a scale inhibitor is degraded after injection. The circumstance also displays a novel mechanism whereby two fluids that do not physically mix never the less reactive with one another through the reservoir rock's serving a role of intermediary. The results have been further interpretated to conclude that in some circumstances a short lifetime for the scale inhibitor is not necessarily a problem for long-term injection.

In order to evaluate geothermal reserves, it is necessary to estimate the porosity-thickness product of the reservoir. This paper deals with the method for estimating the porosity-thickness product of geothermal reservoirs by means of combining well interference and pressure buildup tests. A field study from the Chingshui geothermal area in Taiwan is given to illustrate the application of the method.

The hydrothermal system in the vicinity of Lassen Volcanic National Park contains a central region of fluid upflow in which steam and liquid phases separate, with steam rising through a parasitic vapor-dominated zone and liquid flowing laterally toward areas of hot spring discharge south of the Park. A simplified numerical model was used to simulate the 10,000-20,000 year evolution of this system and to show that under certain circumstances fluid withdrawal from hot-water reservoirs south of the Park could significantly alter the discharge of steam from thermal areas within the Park.

This paper contains the experience gained after one year operating five 5 MW portable, back-pressure, geothermal power plants at Los Azufres. A brief description of the field and te equipment is given. Cost figures of the whole installation and a list of what they believe are the advantages and disadvantages is also presented. The main conclusion is that the use of this type of turbogenerators is quite attractive in new undeveloped fields and also in countries with financial problems where initial capital cost investments must be kept as low as possible at the expenses of long term steam consumption.

Many problems concerning the origin and exploitation of geothermal reservoirs demonstrate the need for models of reactive-solute transport. Of particular interest to us is the coupling between dissolution/precipitation reactions and transient-flow behavior. In an effort to account for observed flow-rate reductions during experiments on samples of granite held in a temperature gradient (summarized at this meeting in 1981 by Moore and others), we examine the effect of quartz precipitation on fluid flow. Our results confirm earlier inerences that reactions responsible for porosity reduction were affected by kinetic factors. Although our results show substantial flow-rate reductions, we are unable to reproduce measured silica concentrations of the outlet fluid by considering the behavior of silica phases without regard for that of the feldspars and micas.

Test data from several wells where scale either formed in the wellbore or in the reservoir have been observed. Some generalizations can be made about the behavior of downhole and wellhead pressure during drawdown and build-up. In addition, estimates of the size of the obstruction can be made in the field. Reservoir parameters can be calculated from pressure build-ups, after the problem of downhole scaling has been identified.

Tracer tests performed at the geothermal reservoir at Wairakei, New Zealand have been analyzed, using a mathematical and physical model in which tracer flows through individual fractures with diffusion into the surrounding porous matrix. Model calculations matched well with the observed tracer return profiles. From the model, first tracer arrival times and the number of individual fractures (the principal conduits of fluid flow in the reservoir) joining the injector-producer wells can be determined. if the porosity, adsorption distribution coefficient, bulk density and effective diffusion coefficient are nown, fracture widths may be estimated. Hydrodynamic dispersion down the length of the fracture is a physical component not taken into account in this model. Future studies may be warranted in order to determine the necessity of including this factor. In addition to the tracer profile matching by the matrix diffusion model, comparisons with a simpler fracture flow model by Fossum and Horne (1982) were made. The inclusion of the matrix diffusion effects was seen to significantly improve the fit to the observed data.

Using numerical simulation techniques and the radial model developed for the study of the natural state of the Heber field (Lippmann and Bodvarsson, 1983b), the response of this geothermal system to exploitation is analyzed. In this study the generation rate in the field is allowed to build up over a period of 10 years; after that, 30 years of constant power production is assumed. Full (100%) injection of the spent brines is considered, the fluids being injected 2250 m ("near injection") or 4250 m ("far injection") from the center of the system. The study shows that a maximum of 6000 kg/s (equivalent to approximately 300 MWe) of fluids may be produced for the near injection case, but only 3000 kg/s (eqivalent to approximately 150 MWe) for the far injection case. The results indicate that the possible extraction rates (generating capacity) generally are limited by the pressure drop in the reservoir. The average temperature of the produced fluids will decline 10-18{degrees}C over the 40-year period.

This paper discusses the development and use of a high temperature (300{degrees}C) downhole flowmeter for geothermal well logging. The availability of the instrument gives the reservoir engineer a powerful tool for formation evaluation and studying wellbore dynamics. The instrument components, their function, and temperature limitations are discussed in detail. Several field examples of spinner log interpretation are also presented.

Data of chemical and isotopic composition of fluids from Los Azufres geothermal wells is interpreted in order to characterize the composition of the liquid phase, and to define the relation between this phase and fluids from steam-producing wells. Chemical and specific enthalpy data show that most wells considered are fed a mixture of steam and liquid. Thus, flashing occurs in the formation. This poses a problem on the interpretation of isotopic data, because the composition of the feeding mixture need not be representative of the composition of the liquid phase in the reservoir. Two extreme alternatives for the interpretation of isotopic data are considered. In the first alternative the composition of the total discharge is considered to be the same as that of the liquid in the reservoir. In the second alternative the feeding fluid is considered to be a mixture of the liquid phase in the reservoir and the calculated fraction of steam. In addition, this steam is assumed to separate from a much larger mass of that liquid phase at the downhole temperature. The contribution of steam is then subtracted from the total discharge to yield the composition of the liquid phase. Using data for silica concentration in …

MCR Geothermal Corporation pioneered successful exploratiory drilling the Bottle Rock area of the Geysers Steam Field in 1976. The wellfield is characterized by a deep reservoir with varied flowrates, temperatures, pressures, and stem chemistries being quite acceptable. More detailed reservoir engineering tests will follow as production commences.

A study of the temporal behaviour of gas compsition in the Larderello-Castelnuovo area shows that this behaviour varies, depending on whether the wells are affected or not by natural recharge. Where no natural recharge exists, gas composition seems to be governed by chemical equilibria. The recharge water, and the steam it produces, mix with the fluid already existing in the reservoir. At Larderello (far from absorption areas) the gas composition resulting from this mixing does not undergo further changes by chemical reaction. This is due either to a lack of reactivity where there is no liquid phase or to an ineffective fluid-rock interaction. At Castelnuovo (close to absorption areas) the H{sub 2}S and CH{sub 4} contents in the gas have gradually decreased with the increase in recharge effects. The decrease in H{sub 2}S can be attributed to dissolution in liquid water and oxidation. Various hypotheses have been forwarded for the methane. The correlation existing between CH{sub 4} and N{sub 2} concentrations, even when methane decreases in the areas affected by recharge, suggests that CH{sub 4} may be governed by more than just the Fisher-Tropsch reaction.

Recently a significant role of artificial and/or natural cracks in the geothermal reservoir has been demonstrated in the literatures (Abe, H., et al., 1983, Nielson, D.L. and Hullen, J.B., 1983), where the cracks behave as fluid paths and/or heat exchanging surfaces. Until now, however, there are several problems such as a design procedure of hydraulic fracturing, and a quantitative estimate of fluid and heat transfer for reservoir design. In order to develop a design methodology of geothermal reservoir cracks, a special distinguished research project, named as ''{Lambda}-Project'', started at Tohoku University (5 years project, 1983-1988). In this project a basic fracture mechanics model of geothermal reservoir cracks is being demonstrated and its validation is being discussed both theoretically and experimentally. This paper descibes an outline of ''{Lambda}-Project''.

The La Primavera geothermal field is located about 20 km west of the city of Guadalajara, Jalisco, in the western part of the Mexican Neovolcanic Axis. Initial results of five deep exploration wells (down to 2000 m depth) were very promising; measured downhole temperatures exceed 300{degrees}C. During production, however, downhole temperatures dropped, and the chemistry of the fluids changed. The analysis of geologic, mineralogic, geochemical, and well completion data indicate that colder fluids flow down the wellbore from shallower aqifers cooling the upper zones of the gothermal reservoir. This problem is attributed to inadequate well completions. Doubts have arisen about continuing the exploration of the field because of the somewhat disappointing drilling results. However, a more thorough analysis of all available data indicates that a good geothermal prospect might exist below 3000 m, and that it could be successfully developed with appropriately located and completed wells.

The Olkaria geothermal field has been under continuous development since 1970. A feasibility study, completed in 1976, after six wells had been drilled and tested, indicated that development of the Olkaria field was feasible. The feasibility study was followed by production drilling and the construction of three 15 MW generating units. The first unit was brought on stream in July 1981, the second in December, 1982, and the third is scheduled to be completed in early 1985. The current output of 19 productive wells is equivalent to 46 MWe. Distribution of fumaroles and resistivity surveys indicate an areal extent of some 80 km{sup 2} for the Olkaria geothermal field. Gas chemistry of fumaroles indicates comparable underground temperatures over the whole field, 200-250{degrees}C. The capacity of the resource has been estimated to be 500-1000 MW electric for a production period of 25 years. Most of the drilling has been confined to a small part of the geothermal field. Here maximum recorded downhole temperature is 339{degrees}C and temperatures follow the boiling point curve with depth. A thin steam zone at 240{degrees}C is observed in the top of the reservoir at approximately 600-700 m depth. The reservoir fluid is dilute, of the sodium …

This paper consists of two parts and an appendix. In the first part a review is made of the geothermal activity in Italy from 1975 to 1982, including electrical and non-electrical applications. Remarks then follow on the trends that occurred and the operational criteria that were applied in the same period, which can be considered a transitional period of geothermal development in Italy. Information on recent trends and development objectives up to 1990 are given in the second part of the paper, together with a summary on program activities in the various geothermal areas of Italy. The appendix specifically reviews the main reseroir engineering activities carried out in the past years and the problems likely to be faced in the coming years in developing Itallian fields.