The purposes of this study were to (a) investigate differences in self-objectification, self-surveillance, body shame, and flow among female athletes on all-women's and coed ultimate frisbee teams at different competitive levels, and (b) examine the objectification theory model across groups. Participants (n = 112) completed online surveys including a demographic questionnaire, trait and state versions of the Self-Objectification Questionnaire, Body Surveillance and Body Shame subscales of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, and the Flow State Scale. No differences in self-objectification, self-surveillance, or body shame were found, although highly competitive athletes experienced more flow than lower competitive teams. Relationships were found between self-objectification, self-surveillance, and body shame, but not for flow, partially supporting the objectification theory model.

This study examined the effects of frame-by-frame video-computerized feedback on competitive state anxiety, self-efficacy, effort, and baseball performance of high school players. Players were randomly assigned to one of three feedback conditions: (a) Hitting score, (b) Hitting score and frame-by-frame analysis of a mechanically correct swing, (c) Hitting score and frame-by-frame analysis of participant's swing and a mechanically correct swing. Once per week for six weeks, the players completed three questionnaires: (a) Hitting Self-Efficacy Scale, (b) Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2C, and (c) Performance Effort Scale, and performed a hitting task. Results of the 3 (Group) x 6 (Trials) ANOVAs revealed no significant effects. This study does not support previous confidence-baseball hitting research.

Purposes for engaging in physical activities were examined from the perspective of university students enrolled in physical activity classes and kinesiology faculty. Data was collected from 473 students and 20 faculty members. Both groups completed the Personal Purposes and Meanings in Movement Inventory (PPMMI). Independent t-tests were conducted for each of the twenty-two purpose statements to determine differences between faculty and students in the rating of purposes. Students attending individual sport activity classes rated self-knowledge, transcendence, object projection/reception, awareness, competition, neuromuscular efficiency, movement appreciation, and muscular strength significantly lower (p<.01) than the faculty. Students attending team sport activities rated self-knowledge, transcendence, participation, object projection/reception, teamwork, awareness, competition, leadership, and expression significantly (pc.01) lower than the faculty. Students attending fitness activity classes rated self-knowledge, competition, leadership, transcendence, participation, teamwork, circulo-respiratory efficiency, and personal integration significantly (p<.01) lower than faculty.

The purpose of this study was to explore whether a previous gymnastic or tumbling injury influences gymnasts' and tumblers' self-efficacy, motivation, competition anxiety, and fears of pain and injury. Participants (N = 105) completed survey packets during practice which contained demographic questions and questionnaires that measure self-efficacy for physical abilities and exercise, self-motivation, risk of injury, pain catastrophizing, and sport anxiety. Results of a one-way ANOVA indicated that gymnasts and tumblers who experienced a previous injury were significantly different than those who had not experienced an injury on their self-efficacy for physical abilities (p = .007), self-motivation (p = .007), and perceived risk of reinjury (p = .018). Specifically, these findings indicate that gymnasts and tumblers with previous injuries experience higher levels of self-efficacy for physical abilities, self-motivation, and perceived risk of reinjury. Implications for coaches, gymnasts, and tumblers include: creating an open and comfortable environment to discuss pain and injury, developing strategies to break the negative cycle of fear of injury, and fostering a positive rehabilitation process. In the future, researchers should examine the influence that gender and type of competition has on self-efficacy, self-motivation, perceived risk of reinjury, pain perceptions, and competition anxiety of those who have experienced …

The purpose of this research was to examine the influence of fictitious scoring updates on psychological momentum (PM) and athletic performance in a competitive basketball setting. The participants included in this study were 50 male undergraduate students who reported having played basketball previously and qualified by being able to make more than 24% (12 out of 50) of their 3-point shots in a pre-trial session. Participants were told that they were competing in a 50 shot, 3-point shooting competition against another individual, equal in ability. After every 10 shots, participants were given a fabricated score update and answered four questions used to measure PM. Results showed that the fictitious score updates significantly (p < .01) influenced participants’ PM scores, where those who were told they led had higher PM scores than those who were told they trailed. As for shooting performance, no significant differences (p = .76) were found between positive and negative PM states for participants who reported experiencing both during the competition. Together, these findings suggest that manufactured score updates can influence PM, but resultant performance differences may not exist. Results of this study lend support to the notion that PM is experienced by athletes. However, when examining …

This study identified factors that influenced men to coach women's basketball. The CCFQ, designed to determine relative importance of each of nine factors in career selection, was completed by 78 male head coaches of women's NCAA II basketball. Data was analyzed using univariate analysis with repeated measures, t-tests, and ANOVA. These coaches indicated fulfill need for competition, help female athletes reach full potential, and serve as role model as significant influences. Moderate influences included personal attributes of athletes, job attributes, and career advancement. Job availability, belief in own success, and income were not considered influential in career selection. Few differences were indicated between demographic sub-groups on any factor. Factors associated with well being of athletes had the greatest influence.

The current study investigated whether combining a ten-week imagery training and video modeling intervention would improve the consistency and form of tennis serves, and to determine if differences in intervention effectiveness were based on skill level of the players. Sixty-one high school tennis players (Mage = 15.44, SD = .98) were separated into four groups; a control group and an experimental group which received the mental training program. Univariate analyses of covariance controlling for possible pre-test differences, gender, and years of tennis experience and a chi-squared analysis for responders to treatment showed no significant differences for the experimental group. Thus, the ten-week imagery training and video modeling intervention used in this study appeared to not influence tennis service form and consistency. There is a need for longitudinal studies of mental training techniques to determine whether these practices are effective for athletes of different sports and competitive levels.

Mood state changes have been assessed in endurance sport athletes such as swimmers, distance runners and rowers. However, much less is known about the psychological changes that occur in team sport athletes. The purpose of this study was to assess mood state changes of intercollegiate female volleyball players across a competitive season.

The study examined the effects of positive verbal reinforcement on intrinsic motivation by determining differential effects over four multidimensions of Ryan's Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI). Subjects (N=60) were 30 male and 30 female college students. The subjects were blocked by gender and randomly assigned to a positive verbal reinforcement group or a control group. The subjects received 10 trials on the stabilometer. The results of the study indicated that there were significant group differences for composite intrinsic motivation and for perceived competence; however, there were no significant gender differences found. Furthermore, no group differences were reported for the underlying factors of interest/enjoyment, effort, or pressure/tension.

The purpose of this study was to determine (a) the attentional focus strategies used by triathletes during the three stages of an Olympic distance triathlon, (b) if level of experience influences the attentional focus strategies used by triathletes, and (c) whether there is a relationship between athletes finishing times and the attentional strategies used in each stage of the race. Triathletes (N = 160) completed the Triathlon Attentional Focus Inventory, which measured association and dissociation during the swim, bike, and run. One-way ANOVAs revealed significant differences between the athletes' level of experience and the attentional strategies used, as well as differences between the athletes overall race time and the attentional strategies used during each stage of the triathlon. Athletes with more experience associated more during the race, whereas athletes with less experience dissociated more throughout the race.

The purpose of this study was to examine current kinesiology students' athletic identity, identity foreclosure, perceived task value in sport, and perfectionism. An online survey was distributed via email to current kinesiology students. The survey contained questions regarding demographic information and items from the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale, Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status, Perceived Task Value in Sport, Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-2, and Multidimensional Inventory of Perfectionism in Sport. Results of the Pearson moment correlations indicated that the higher the athletic identity, the higher the subjective task value, identity foreclosure, perfectionistic strivings, and perfectionistic concerns. Multiple regression analyses were performed to further examine the predictive power of athletic identity, subjective task value, and identity foreclosure for perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. Results indicated that athletic identity and subjective task value were significant predictors of perfectionistic strivings. Results also showed that athletic identity and identity foreclosure were significant predictors of perfectionistic concerns. Future research should replicate the study using participants from different geographical regions. Furthermore, future research should consider a longitudinal and qualitative study to investigate the development of subjective task value in sport.

This study explores the flow experiences of collegiate athletes. NCAA Division I athletes and intramural athletes (N = 180) completed a series of measures on their flow experiences. Comparisons were made regarding the characteristics of flow, the perceived facilitators of flow, the frequency of flow experiences, and explored the role of perceived ability. Using a person by situation interaction framework, this study singles out perceived ability as a person factor and competitive level as a situational factor to more clearly examine flow experiences. Results indicated distinctions between the two groups. Mainly, the intramural athletes reported experiencing the merging of action and awareness, autotelic experience, transformation of time and having clear goals more frequently than the NCAA Division I athletes. No group differences were found for flow frequency or flow facilitators. Perceived ability was found to have a weak, but significant relationship with specific flow facilitators and characteristics.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether coaching behavior preferences of interscholastic athletes differ as a function of gender and type of sport. The Coaching Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Martin & Barnes, 1999) was administered to 372 interscholastic athletes. The mean scores of the participants' responses to each subscale on the CBQ were the dependent variables and gender and type of sport were the independent variables. Descriptive statistics revealed that female and male interscholastic athletes who perform on coactive, mixed, and interactive sport teams preferred coaches who engage in supportive and instructional behaviors, as opposed to non-responses or negative responses. A 2 (Gender) X 3 (Type of Sport) MANOVA and discriminant function analyses indicated that gender and the degree of interdependency between group members affects preferred coaching behavior. Thus, coaches should consider situational factors and personal characteristics when working with interscholastic athletes.

The purpose of the present investigation was to compare the psychological factors related to drug use by college athletes on seven drug categories. A questionnaire was given to male and female Division I college athletes asking them about their use of drugs. The frequency, intensity and duration of use/non-use was used to divide subjects into high and low/nonuser categories. Dependent measures included the Profile of Mood States, Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and questions assessing athlete stress. A multivariate analysis of variance(MANOVA) was conducted in a 2 x 2 (alcohol high/low, non-user x male/female) design to distinguish significant differences on the POMS and stress questions followed by univariate ANOVA's. A separate ANOVA was run on Coopersmith's Self-Esteem Inventory. Results indicated that high alcohol users scored significantly higher on anger, fatigue and vigor than low/non-users. Significant differences were found between males and females on the pressure felt from coaches to perform well.

The purposes of this study were to examine the (a) attentional focus strategies used by high school distance runners, (b) changes in attentional focus across four laps in three 1.6 km runs, and (c) effects of a pre-performance intervention using motivational and instructional self talk on the attentional focus strategies used by and performance of high school distance runners. Participants (N = 42) completed a background and demographic questionnaire, the Cross Country Attentional Focus Inventory (CCAFI), a motivational and instructional statement survey, and the Self-Motivation Inventory. A series of oneway ANOVAs revealed significant differences in the types of attentional strategies used by each group, as well as fluctuations in use of strategies. The experimental group associated more during the each of the 1.6 km trials, whereas the control group dissociated more throughout each trial. A significant group by week interaction was found, with the experimental group maintaining their performance and the control group slowing from week one to week three.

Coaching efficacy is largely influenced by mastery experiences such as formal education, coaching experience, and sport participation. Further examining specific experiences, such as exposure to sport psychology, may prove helpful in advancing our understanding of coaching efficacy. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore male high school coaches' coaching experience to determine whether sport psychology education and interactions with sport psychology consultants relate to coaches' coaching efficacy. Participants, 585 males (Mage = 43.89 + 10.02), completed an online survey measuring coaching efficacy and coaching and sport psychology experience. A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that after controlling for years of coaching experience and school size, sport psychology education and interactions with sport psychology consultants were associated with higher overall coaching efficacy scores (p < .001). Additionally, analysis of covariance revealed that those with extensive sport psychology education had statistically higher coaching efficacy scores than those reporting no sport psychology education (p < .05). Knowledge of these phenomena may be relevant for sport psychology consultants, coach educators, and researchers.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether coaching behavior preferences of NCAA Division I athletes differ as a function of gender and type of sport. The Coaching Behavior Questionnare (CBQ; Martin & Barnes, 1999) was administered to 195 NCAA Division I athletes. Gender and sport type were the independent variables and the participant's mean scores for the subscales on the CBQ were the dependent variables. Descriptive statistics revealed that, overall, NCAA Division I athletes prefer positive and instructional behaviors more than non-responses or negative behaviors. A 2 (gender) x 3 (type of sport) MANOVA and follow-up discriminant function analysis indicated that coaching behavior preferences differed as a function of gender and type of sport played. Thus, NCAA Division I coaches should consider both individual and situational characteristics when working with their athletes to achieve the desired outcome.

The purpose of the investigation was to determine the effects of music on self reported vividness of movement imagery. Eighty-four undergraduate kinesiology majors (42 males; 42 females) were subjects. Based on identical perceptions of precategorized music (classical and jazz), selected subjects were randomly assigned to one of three music treatment conditions (sedative, stimulative, and control) and administered the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire. A 3 x 2 x 2 (Treatment x Gender x Perspective) ANOVA with repeated measures on the last factor was employed. The results revealed that the two music conditions significantly enhanced the vividness of internal and external imagery perspectives when compared to the no music condition, and that music facilitated the vividness of males and females equally.

The purpose of the present study was to examine goal setting strategies, locus of control beliefs and personality characteristics of swimmers (108 males and 111 females) from top twenty 1999 NCAA Division IA programs. Three questionnaires were completed: (a) Goal Setting in Sport Questionnaire (GSISQ: Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 1993), (b) the Internal, Powerful Others, Chance Scale (IPC: Levenson, 1973), and (c) the compliance subscale and six conscientiousness subscales from the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R: Costa & McCrae, 1985). Descriptive statistics from the GSISQ indicated that most of the swimmers set goals to improve overall performance (51%) and set moderately difficult goals (58%). Results associated with the IPC scale revealed that most of the swimmers attributed their sport performance to internal factors. Results pertaining to the NEO-PI-R indicated that most swimmers were highly conscientious, disciplined, purposeful, and determined.

The present investigation examined the relationship between elated and depressed moods and dissociation, association, and positive self-talk strategies on endurance performance. Results showed a significant mood main effect with elated subjects performing longer than depressed subjects. Results also revealed a significant cognitive strategy main effect with positive self-talk and dissociation groups producing longer endurance times than association and control groups. A significant interaction between mood and cognitive strategy found that subjects in the positive self-talk and dissociation groups increased their performance time to a greater extent from the depressed to the elated condition than did subjects in the association and control groups. Results are discussed in terms of previous investigations of mood and cognitive strategies on physical performance.

Guided by the expectancy value model of achievement choice, this study examined the relationships among expectancy value constructs (expectancy related beliefs and subjective task values), effort and intention for future participation in a culturally specific dance, soul line, among African American adult women in the church setting. Participants were 100 African American women who were members of the women’s ministries from four predominantly African American churches in the Dallas/Ft. Worth metropolitan area. Participants completed a 20-minute soul line session and responded to survey questions, validated in previous research, assessing their expectancy-related beliefs, subjective task values, effort, intention for future participation and physical activity. This was the first study to use the expectancy value model as a guide to determine motivations attached to physical activities among African American adult women. Usefulness, a component of subjective task values, emerged as a predictor of intention for future participation. Eighty-one percent of the women did not meet physical activity guidelines for aerobic activity. Of those inactive women 60% indicated an interest in doing soul line dancing often at their church after one short exposure to the activity as indicated by the strongest possible response to both intention questions. A slightly smaller percent of the …

Six male long-distance runners participated in this study to evaluate the responses to exercise at 90% and 100% vV02max. Subjects participated in five maximal exercise tests: one incremental, three tests at 90% vV02max, and one test at 100% vV02max. The results of this study demonstrate that V02max can be elicited in a constant-velocity test at 90% vV02max.

This study investigated the relationship between belief in coaching abilities (coaching efficacy beliefs, CEB), transformational leadership behaviors (TLB), and motivational climate development of current strength and conditioning coaches working with high school level athletes. The measures used were the coaching efficacy scale for high school teams (CES II-HST, Myers et al.,2000), the differentiated transformational leadership inventory (DTLI, Callow et al., 2009), and the patterns of adaptive learning scales (PALS, Midgley et al., 2000). It was hypothesized that CEB and TLB would influence motivational climate development, while coaches' background characteristics would correlate with CEB, TLB, and motivational climate development. The 60 coaches who participated reported an average of thirteen (SD=8) years of experience and 51 were Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialists. Coaches reported high efficacy, frequent use of TLB, and development of a moderately high task- and somewhat ego-involving motivational climate. Correlations between demographic variables and CEB, TLB, and motivational climate development revealed three significant relationships: years of experience with CEB, and professional development activities and athlete to coach ratio with ego-involving climate development. CEB and TLB had a strong positive correlation. Two regression analyses were conducted to determine if the outcomes of the CEB and TLB measures predicted motivational climate …

Although the “self” has generally been conceptualized as relatively stable in sport-specific research, events such as deselection, injury, and career termination have been found to negatively affect athletes’ levels of identification with the athlete role. Additionally, there has been limited research regarding competitive failure and its ability to negatively affect athletes’ levels of identification with the athlete role. The purpose of the present investigation was to provide additional evidence regarding the influence poor competitive seasons have on the malleability of athletes’ self-identity. Athletes were followed throughout the course of their season to determine whether athletes who encountered a poor competitive season reported lowered levels of athletic identity. Specifically, male and female NCAA Division I track and field athletes completed pre-indoor, post-indoor, and post-outdoor assessments of athletic identity. Contrary to previous research, the current study’s results indicated no identifiable relationship between male and female athletes’ season performance satisfaction and their level of post-indoor and post-outdoor athletic identity. Thus, the greatest predictor of athletes’ post-season level of athletic identity was their pre-season level of athletic identity, regardless of season performance. Given these results, future research should assess self-esteem as well as other potential coping strategies athletes might use in order to gain …